PART-II of World Muslim Women I.T.Operators Union (WMWITOU)

                          PART-II of World Muslim Women

I.T.Operators Union (WMWITOU)

What is Violence against Women?

Definition Violence against women of UN

The United Nations defines violence against women as:

 "any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual or mental harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private life."

UN Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women

(Courtesy of Wikipedia, Encyclopedia)

The Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women was adopted without vote^[1] by the United Nations General Assembly in its resolution 48/104 of 20 December 1993. Contained within it is the recognition of "the urgent need for the universal application to women of the rights and principles with regard to equality, security, liberty, integrity and dignity of all human beings".^[2] The resolution is often seen as complementary to, and a strengthening of, the work of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women^[3] and Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action.^[4] It recalls and embodies the same rights and principles as those enshrined in such instruments as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and Articles 1 and 2 provide the most widely used definition of violence against women.^[5] As a consequence of the resolution, in 1999, the General Assembly, led by the representative from the Dominican Republic, designated 25 November as the International Day for the Elimination of Violence against Women.

Background

The international recognition that women have a right to a life free from violence is a recent one. Historically, their struggles with violence, and with the impunity that often protects the perpetrators, is linked with their fight to overcome discrimination. Since its founding the United Nations has concerned itself with the advancement of women's rights,^[6] but did not specifically target the high rates of female targeted violence until 1993. One of the aims of the resolution was to overturn the prevailing governmental stance that violence against women was a private, domestic matter not requiring state intervention. To mark International Women's Day on 8 March 1993, General Secretary,  Boutros-Ghali, issued a statement in preparation of the declaration explicitly outlining the UN's role in the 'promotion' and 'protection' of women's rights:

"The struggle for women's rights, and the task of creating a new United Nations, able to promote peace and the values which nurture and sustain it, are one and the same. Today - more than ever - the cause of women is the cause of all humanity."^[7]

Definition of Violence Against Women

Articles 1 and 2 of the resolution provide the most widely used definition of violence against women.

Article One:

For the purposes of this Declaration, the term "violence against women" means any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private life.

Article Two:

Violence against women shall be understood to encompass, but not be limited to, the following:

(a) Physical, sexual and psychological violence occurring in the family, including battering, sexual abuse of female children in the household, dowry-related violence, marital rape, female genital mutilation and other traditional practices harmful to women, non-spousal violence and violence related to exploitation;

(b) Physical, sexual and psychological violence occurring within the general community, including rape, sexual abuse, sexual harassment and intimidation at work, in educational institutions and elsewhere, trafficking in women and forced prostitution;

(c) Physical, sexual and psychological violence perpetrated or condoned by the State, wherever it occurs.^[2]

Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women

As a consequence of the declaration on 4 March 1994, the Commission on Human Rights adopted Resolution 1994/45^[8] in which it decided to appoint Radhika Coomaraswamy as its first United Nations Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women, including its causes and consequences. The Special Rapporteur has a mandate to collect and analyse data from governments, treaty bodies, specialized agencies, NGOs, and other interested parties, and to respond effectively to such information. Furthermore, they also have a role in making recommendations on an international, national and regional level, as well as liaising with other Special Rapporteurs, special representatives, working groups and independent experts of the Commission on Human Rights.^[9]

On 18 June 2009 the United Nations Human Rights Council appointed Rashida Manjoo as the third incumbent of the role after the tenure of her predecessor, Dr. Yakin Erturk, came to an end.^[10]

Amnesty International

 On 10 April 2009, Amnesty International held a demonstration in Narayanghat, Nepal, to highlight the plight of two activists from violent attacks and, finally, their murder.

Article 4-c:

"Exercise due diligence to prevent, investigate and, in accordance with national legislation, punish acts of violence against women, whether those acts are perpetrated by the State or by private persons."^[2]

The Maputo Protocol Of Women Right

The Maputo Protocol adopted a broader definition, defining violence against women as:

"all acts perpetrated against women which cause or could cause them physical, sexual, psychological, and economic harm, including the threat to take such acts; or to undertake the imposition of arbitrary restrictions on or deprivation of fundamental freedoms in private or public life in peacetime and during situations of armed conflicts or of war".^[180]

The Istanbul Convention

The Istanbul Convention states:

"violence against women" is understood as a violation of human rights and a form of discrimination against women". (Article 3 – Definitions).^[129] 

According to the Istanbul Convention, psychological violence against Women is "the intentional conduct of seriously impairing a person's psychological integrity through coercion or threats".^[129]

Emotional abuse includes minimising, threats, isolation, public humiliation, unrelenting criticism, constant personal devaluation, repeated stonewalling and gaslighting.^[28][62] Stalkingis a common form of psychological intimidation, and is most often perpetrated by former or current intimate partners.^[130] Victims tend to feel their partner has nearly total control over them, greatly affecting the power dynamic in a relationship, empowering the perpetrator, and disempowering the victim.^[131] Victims often suffer from depression, putting them at increased risk of eating disorders,^[132] suicide, and drug and alcohol abuse.^{[131][133][134][135]}

In the landmark case of Opuz v Turkey, the European Court of Human Rights held for the first time that gender-based domestic violence is a form of discrimination under the European Convention.^[181][182]

CDC found

According to one study, the percentage of women who have reported being physically abused by an intimate partner vary from 69% to 10% depending on the country.^[183] In the United States, it is estimated that intimate partner violence accounts for 15% of all violent crime.^[184]The latest research (2017) by the CDC found that over half of all female homicides are committed by intimate partners, 98 percent of whom are men.^[66]

Femicide is usually defined as the gender-based killing of women by men, although the exact definitions vary. Femicides often occur in the context of DV, such as honor killings or dowry killings. For statistical purposes, femicide is often defined as any killing of a woman. The top countries by rate of femicide are El Salvador, Jamaica, Guatemala, South Africa and Russia (data from 2004–09).^[185] However, in El Salvador and Colombia, which have a very high rate of femicide, only three percent of all femicides are committed by a current or former intimate partner, while in Cyprus, France, and Portugal former and current partners are responsible for more than 80% of all cases of femicide.^[185]

Violence against Women

 in the United States: Statistics

Despite the fact that advocacy groups like NOW have worked for over three decades to halt the epidemic of gender-based violence and sexual assault, the numbers are still shocking. It is time to renew our national pledge, from the President and Congress on down to City Councils all across the nation to END violence against women and men, girls and boys. This effort must also be carried on in workplaces, schools, churches, locker rooms, the military, and in courtrooms, law enforcement, entertainment and the media. NOW pledges to continue our work to end this violence and we hope you will join us in our work.

MURDER

In 2005, 1,181 women were murdered by an intimate partner.¹ That’s an average of three women every day. Of all the women murdered in the U.S., about one-third were killed by an intimate partner.²

DOMESTIC VIOLENCE (Intimate Partner Violence or Battering)

Domestic violence can be defined as a pattern of abusive behavior in any relationship that is used by one partner to gain or maintain power and control over an intimate partner.³ According to the National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, women experience about 4.8 million intimate partner-related physical assaults and rapes every year.⁴Less than 20 percent of battered women sought medical treatment following an injury.⁵

SEXUAL VIOLENCE

According to the National Crime Victimization Survey, which includes crimes that were not reported to the police, 232,960 women in the U.S. were raped or sexually assaulted in 2006. That’s more than 600 women every day.⁶ Other estimates, such as those generated by the FBI, are much lower because they rely on data from law enforcement agencies. A significant number of crimes are never even reported for reasons that include the victim’s feeling that nothing can/will be done and the personal nature of the incident.⁷

THE TARGETS

Young women, low-income women and some minorities are disproportionately victims of domestic violence and rape. Women ages 20-24 are at greatest risk of nonfatal domestic violence⁸, and women age 24 and under suffer from the highest rates of rape.⁹ The Justice Department estimates that one in five women will experience rape or attempted rape during their college years, and that less than five percent of these rapes will be reported.¹⁰ Income is also a factor: the poorer the household, the higher the rate of domestic violence — with women in the lowest income category experiencing more than six times the rate of nonfatal intimate partner violence as compared to women in the highest income category.¹¹ When we consider race, we see that African-American women face higher rates of domestic violence than white women, and American-Indian women are victimized at a rate more than double that of women of other races.¹²

IMPACT ON CHILDREN

According to the Family Violence Prevention Fund, “growing up in a violent home may be a terrifying and traumatic experience that can affect every aspect of a child’s life, children who have been exposed to family violence suffer symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder, such as bed-wetting or nightmares, and were at greater risk than their peers of having allergies, asthma, gastrointestinal problems, headaches and flu.” In addition, women who experience physical abuse as children are at a greater risk of victimization as adults, and men have a far greater (more than double) likelihood of perpetrating abuse. ¹³

IMPACT ON HEALTH AND SOCIAL SERVICES

The Centers for Disease Control estimates that the cost of domestic violence in 2003 was more than over $8.3 billion. This cost includes medical care, mental health services, and lost productivity. ¹⁴

LEGISLATION

In 1994, the National Organization for Women, the NOW Legal Defense and Education Fund (now called Legal Momentum), the Feminist Majority and other organizations finally secured passage of the Violence Against Women Act, which provided a record-breaking $1.6 billion to address issues of violence against women.¹⁵ However it took nearly an additional year to force the Newt Gingrich-led Congress to release the funding. An analysis estimated that in the first six years after VAWA was passed, nearly $14.8 billion was saved in net averted social costs.¹⁶ VAWA was reauthorized in 2005, with nearly $4 billion in funding over five years.¹⁷

RESOURCES

¹Bureau of Justice Statistics, Intimate Homicide Victims by Gender

²Bureau of Justice Statistics, There has been a decline in homicide of intimates, especially male victims

³Deptartment of Justice, About Domestic Violence

⁴Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), Understanding
Intimate Partner Violence (PDF)

⁵National Coalition Against Domestic Violence (NCADV), Domestic Violence Facts (PDF)

⁶Bureau of Justice Statistics (table 2, page 15), Criminal Victimization in the United States, 2006 Statistical Tables

⁷US Census Bureau (page 12), National Crime Victimization Survey (PDF)

⁸Bureau of Justice Statistics, Victim Characteristics: Age

⁹Bureau of Justice Statistics (table 4, page 17) Criminal Victimization in the United States, 2006 Statistical Tables (PDF)

¹⁰National Institute of Justice (pages 6-7), Sexual Assault on Campus: What Colleges and Universities Are Doing About It(PDF)

¹¹Bureau of Justice Statistics, Intimate Partner Violence in the U.S.:
Victims

¹²Bureau of Justice Statistics, Victim Characteristics: Race

¹³Family Violence Prevention Fund, The Facts on Children and Domestic Violence

¹⁴CDC, Understanding
Intimate Partner Violence (PDF)

¹⁵NOW, The Violence Against Women Act: Celebrating 10 Years of Prevention

¹⁶University of North Carolina, Analyses of Violence Against Women Act suggest legislation saved U.S. $14.8 billion

¹⁷NCADV, Comparison of VAWA 1994, VAWA 2000 and VAWA 2005
Reauthorization Bill (PDF)

¹⁸National Coalition of Anti-Violence Programs (NCAVP), Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Domestic Violence In the United States in 2007 (PDF)

¹⁹NCAVP, Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Domestic Violence In the United States in 2007 (PDF)

Human Rights Watch

According to a 2003 report by Human Rights Watch:

 "Customs such as the payment of 'bride price' (payment made by a man to the family of a woman he wishes to marry), whereby a man essentially purchases his wife's sexual favors and reproductive capacity, underscore men's socially sanctioned entitlement to dictate the terms of sex, and to use force to do so."^[238]

In recent years, there has been progress in the area of addressing customary practices that endanger women, with laws being enacted in several countries.

Inter-African Committee on Traditional Practices Affecting the Health of Women and Children

The Inter-African Committee on Traditional Practices Affecting the Health of Women and Children is an NGO which works on changing social values, raising consciousness, and enacting laws against harmful traditions which affect the health of women and children in Africa. Laws were also enacted in some countries; for example the 2004 Criminal Code of Ethiopia has a chapter on harmful traditional practices – Chapter III – Crimes committed against life, person and health through harmful traditional practices.^[239]

The Council of Europe

 In addition, the Council of Europe adopted a convention which addresses domestic violence and violence against women, and calls for the states which ratify it to create and fully adjudicate laws against acts of violence previously condoned by traditional, culture, custom, in the name of honor, or to correct what is deemed unacceptable behavior.^[240]

WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION(WHO)

Female genital mutilation is defined by WHO as

 "all procedures that involve partial or total removal of the external female genitalia, or other injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons."

This procedure has been performed on more than 125 million females alive today, and it is concentrated in 29 countries in Africa and Middle East.^[107]

 WHO includes forced marriage, cohabitation, and pregnancy including wife inheritance within its definition of sexual violence.^[102][117] Wife inheritance, or levirate marriage, is a type of marriage in which the brother of a deceased man is obliged to marry his widow, and the widow is obliged to marry her deceased husband's brother.

The Council of Europe Convention

The Council of Europe Convention on the Protection of Children against Sexual Exploitation and Sexual Abuse^[111] was the first international treaty to address child sexual abuse occurring within the home or family.^[112]

The Sunni Religious Court

Sheik Ahmad Al-Kurdi, a judge in the Sunni religious court, said that the law:

 "could lead to the imprisonment of the man where in reality he is exercising the least of his marital rights."^[123] 

United Nations Found

In 2006, a study by the United Nations found that marital rape was a prosecutable offense in at least 104 countries^[125] Once widely condoned or ignored by law and society, marital rape is now repudiated by international conventions and increasingly criminalized.

Council of Europe Convention

The countries which ratified the Council of Europe Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence, the first legally binding instrument in Europe in the field of violence against women,^[49] are bound by its provisions to ensure that non-consensual sexual acts committed against a spouse or partner are illegal.^[126] 

Demographics

Domestic violence occurs across the world, in various cultures,^[141] and affects people of all economic statuses;^[20] however, indicators of lower socioeconomic status (such as unemployment and low income) have been shown to be risk factors for higher levels of domestic violence in several studies.^[142]

Amnesty International

Legislation

Amnesty International's Secretary General has stated that:

"It is unbelievable that in the twenty-first century some countries are condoning child marriage and marital rape while others are outlawing abortion, sex outside marriage and same-sex sexual activity – even punishable by death."^[255]

World Health Organization(WHO)

 According to WHO, "one of the most common forms of violence against women is that performed by a husband or male partner."

The WHO notes that such violence is often ignored because often

 "legal systems and cultural norms do not treat as a crime, but rather as a 'private' family matter, or a normal part of life."^[47] 

The criminalization of adultery has been cited as inciting violence against women, as these prohibitions are often meant, in law or in practice, to control women's and not men's behavior; and are used to rationalize acts of violence against women.^[256][257] 

High Commissioner for Human Rights

According to High Commissioner for Human Rights Navi Pillay:

"Some have argued, and continue to argue, that family violence is placed outside the conceptual framework of international human rights. However, under international laws and standards, there is a clear State responsibility to uphold women's rights and ensure freedom from discrimination, which includes the responsibility to prevent, protect and provide redress – regardless of sex, and regardless of a person's status in the family."^[48]

Percentage of women who reported actual or attempted sexual assault by an intimate male partner (late 1990s)[99]
Country	Percentage
Switzerland	12%
Germany	15%
US	15%
Canada	15%
Nicaragua	22%
UK	23%
Zimbabwe	25%
India	28%

Domestic violence Women

 (Courtesy of Wikipedia, Encyclopedia)

Domestic violence often occurs when the abuser believes that abuse is an entitlement, acceptable, justified, or unlikely to be reported. It may produce an intergenerational cycle of abuse in children and other family members, who may feel that such violence is acceptable or condoned. Many people do not recognize themselves as abusers or victims because they may consider their experiences as family conflicts that got out of control.^[11] Awareness, perception, definition and documentation of domestic violence differs widely from country to country. Domestic violence often happens in the context of forced or child marriage.^[12]

Victims may experience severe psychological disorders, such as post-traumatic stress disorder. Children who live in a household with violence often show psychological problems from an early age, such as avoidance, hyper vigilance to threats, and dysregulated aggression which may contribute to vicarious traumatization.^[14]

Wife beating

The United Nations Population Fund found violence against women and girls to be one of the most prevalent human rights violations worldwide, stating that "one in three women will experience physical or sexual abuse in her lifetime."^[172] Violence against women tends to be less prevalent in developed Western nations, and more normalized in the developing world.^[173]

Wife beating was made illegal nationally in the United States by 1920.^[174][175] Although the exact rates are disputed, there is a large body of cross-cultural evidence that women are subjected to domestic violence significantly more often than men.^{[2][176][177]} In addition, there is broad consensus that women are more often subjected to severe forms of abuse and are more likely to be injured by an abusive partner, and this is exacerbated by economic or social dependence.^{[1][24][176][177]}

Influences and factors

Social views

Social views on domestic violence vary from person to person, and from region to region, but in many places outside the West, the concept is very poorly understood. This is because in most of these countries the relation between the husband and wife is not considered one of equals, but instead one in which the wife must submit herself to the husband.

According to Violence against Women in Families and Relationships, "Globally, wife-beating is seen as justified in some circumstances by a majority of the population in various countries, most commonly in situations of actual or suspected infidelity by wives or their "disobedience" toward a husband or partner."^[220] These violent acts against a wife are often not considered a form of abuse by society (both men and women) but are considered to have been provoked by the behavior of the wife, who is seen as being at fault. While beatings of wives are often a response to "inappropriate" behaviors, in many places extreme acts such as honor killings are approved by a high section of the society.

According to Antonia Parvanova, one of the difficulties of dealing legally with the issue of DV is that men in many male dominated societies do not understand that inflicting violence against their wives is against the law. 

She said, referring to a case that occurred in Bulgaria, "A husband was tried for severely beating his wife and when the judge asked him if he understood what he did and if he's sorry, the husband said "But she's my wife". He doesn't even understand that he has no right to beat her."^[225] UNFPA writes that:^[226] "In some developing countries, practices that subjugate and harm women – such as wife-beating, killings in the name of honour, female genital mutilation/cutting and dowry deaths – are condoned as being part of the natural order of things".

Strong views among the population in certain societies that reconciliation is more appropriate than punishment in cases of domestic violence are also another cause of legal impunity; a study found that 64% of public officials in Colombia said that if it were in their hands to solve a case of intimate partner violence, the action they would take would be to encourage the parties to reconcile.^[227]

Victim blaming is also prevalent in many societies, including in Western countries: a 2010 Eurobarometer poll found that 52% of respondents agreed with the assertion that the "provocative behaviour of women" was a cause of violence against women; with respondents in Cyprus, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta and Slovenia being most likely to agree with the assertion (more than 70% in each of these countries).^[228]

Custom and tradition

Anti-dowry poster in Bangalore, India

Local customs and traditions are often responsible for maintaining certain forms of DV. Such customs and traditions include son preference (the desire of a family to have a boy and not a girl, which is strongly prevalent in parts of Asia), which can lead to abuse and neglect of girl children by disappointed family members; child and forced marriages; dowry.

Acid attacks

Acid attacks, are an extreme form of violence in which acid is thrown at the victims, usually their faces, resulting in extensive damage including long-term blindness and permanent scarring.^{[71][72][73][74][75]} These are commonly a form of revenge against a woman for rejecting a marriage proposal or sexual advance.^[76][77]

Bride burning or dowry killing

Bride burning or dowry killing is a form of domestic violence in which a newly married woman is killed at home by her husband or husband's family due to their dissatisfaction over the dowry provided by her family. The act is often a result of demands for more or prolonged dowry after the marriage.^[97] Dowry violence is most common in South Asia, especially in India. In 2011, the National Crime Records Bureau reported 8,618 dowry deaths in India, but unofficial figures estimate at least three times this amount.^[98]

Handbook on effective police responses to

 violence against women

 The United Nations created the Handbook on effective police responses to violence against women to provide guidelines to address and manage violence through the creation of effective laws, law enforcement policies and practices and community activities to break down societal norms that condone violence, criminalize it and create effect support systems for survivors of violence.^[241]

In cultures where the police and legal authorities have a reputation of corruption and abusive practices, victims of DV are often reluctant to turn to formal help.^[242]

The World with of Women

UN & WORLD WOMEN

Some beneficial UN’s Official themes of World Women Day

1996: Women and the Peace Table

1999: World Free of Violence Against Women

2000: Women Uniting for Peace

2001: Women and Peace: Women Managing Conflicts

2007: Ending Impunity for Violence Against Women and Girls.

2009: Women and Men United to End Violence Against Women and Girls.

2011: Equal Access to Education, Training, and Science and Technology: Pathway to Decent Work for Women.

2013: A Promise is a Promise: Time for Action to End Violence Against Women.

Yearly commemorations

International Women's Day (IWD)- 2010

On the occasion of 2010 International Women's Day the International Committee of the Red Cross/Crescent (ICRC) drew attention to the hardships displaced women endure. The displacement of populations is one of the gravest consequences of today's armed conflicts. It affects women in a host of ways.

IWD 2011

Though the celebration in the West was low-key, events took place in more than 100 countries on March 8, 2011, to commemorate the 100th anniversary of International Women's Day. In the United States, President Barack Obama proclaimed March 2011 to be "Women's History Month", calling Americans to mark IWD by reflecting on "the extraordinary accomplishments of women" in shaping the country's history. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton launched the "100 Women Initiative: Empowering Women and Girls through International Exchanges", on the eve of IWD. In the run-up to 2011 International Women's Day, the Red Cross/Crescent called on States and other entities not to relent in their efforts to prevent rape and other forms of sexual violence that harm the lives and dignity of countless women in conflict zones around the world every year.

Australia issued an IWD 100th anniversary commemorative 20-cent coin.

IWD 2012

Oxfam America invited people to celebrate inspiring women in their lives by sending a free International Women's Day e-Card or honoring a woman whose efforts had made a difference in the fight against hunger and poverty with Oxfam's International Women's Day award.

On the occasion of International Women's Day 2012, the ICRC called for more action to help the mothers and wives of people who have gone missing during armed conflict. The vast majority of people who go missing in connection with conflict are men. As well as the anguish 

of not knowing what has happened to the missing husband or son, many of these women face economic and practical difficulties. The ICRC underlined the duty of parties to a conflict to search for the missing and provide information to the families.

IWD 2013

The International Committee of the Red Cross/Crescent (ICRC) drew attention to the plight of women in prison.

IWD 2014

American singer Beyoncé also posted an International Women's Day video to her YouTube account.

IWD 2015

Women on the street celebrating International Women's Day in Cameroon

Governments and activists around the world commemorated the 20th anniversary year of the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, an historic roadmap that set the agenda for realizing women's rights.

IWD 2016

The Ministry of Women and Child Development, INDIA.

The Ministry of Women and Child Development, India announced on the eve of the IWD, the setting up of four more one-stop crisis centers on March 8, in addition to the eight already functioning across the country. 

On the occasion of International Women's Day, the President (then) of India, Shri Pranab Mukherjee said in his speach: I extend warm greetings and good wishes to the women of India and thank them for their contributions over the years in the building of our nation. 

IWD 2017

In a message in support of International Women's Day, the UN Secretary-General António Guterres commented on how women's rights were being "reduced, restricted and reversed". With men still in leadership positions and a widening economic gender gap, he called for change "by empowering women at all levels, enabling their voices to be heard and giving them control over their own lives and over the future of our world".

IWD 2017

International Women’s Day 2018 – Observance at UN headquarters Join us for the United Nations Observance of International Women’s Day, to be held on 8 March 2018 in the Trusteeship Council Chamber, UN Headquarters, New York. Speakers will include UN Secretary-General, UN Women Executive Director, Reese Witherspoon, Academy Award–winning actor and activist, Danai Gurira, Tony-nominated playwright, actor and activist, and civil society representatives.

IWD 2019

The UN theme for International Women's Day was: 'Think equal, build smart, innovate for change'.

The federal state of Berlin marked International Women's Day as a public holiday for the first time.

Around the world

  Official holiday

  Holiday for women

  Non-official holiday

World Official Holidays on Women Day

The day of Women is an official holiday in Afghanistan, Angola, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Burkina Faso, Cambodia, China (for women only), Cuba, Georgia, Guinea-Bissau, Eritrea, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Laos, Madagascar (for women only), Moldova, Mongolia, Nepal, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uganda, Ukraine, Uzbekistan, Vietnam, and Zambia.

In some countries, such as Cameroon Croatia, Romania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgariaand Chile, the day is not a public holiday.

In the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic, huge Soviet-style celebrations were held annually. International Women's Day was re-established as an official "important day" by the Parliament of the Czech Republic.

Yellow mimosa is the symbol of IWD in Italy.

The day is widely celebrated in France, as Journée internationale des femmes. To celebrate the day in Italy, men give yellow mimosas to women.

In the United States, actress and human rights activist Beata Pozniak worked with the Mayor of Los Angeles and the Governor of California to lobby members of the U.S. Congress to propose official recognition of the holiday. In February 1994, H. J. Res. 316 was introduced by Rep. Maxine Waters, along with 79 cosponsors, in an attempt to officially recognize March 8 of that year as International Women's Day. The bill was subsequently referred to, and remained in, the House Committee on Post Office and Civil Service. No vote of either house of Congress was achieved on this piece of legislation.

As of 2019, International Women's Day will also be celebrated as a public holiday in the federal state of Berlin, Germany.

International Mother's Day

(Courtesy of  Wikipedia, Encyclopedia)

Mother's Day
Observed by	40+ countries
Type	Worldwide
Significance	Honors mothers and motherhood
Date	Varies per country
Frequency	Annual
Related to	Children's Day, Siblings Day, Father's Day, Parents' Day, Grandparent's Day

Mother's Day is a celebration honoring the mother of the family, as well as motherhood, maternal bonds, and the influence of mothers in society. It is celebrated on various days in many parts of the world, most commonly in the months of March or May.

The modern Mother's Day began in the United States, at the initiative of Anna Jarvis in the early 20th century. This is not (directly) related to the many traditional celebrations of mothers and motherhood that have existed throughout the world over thousands of years, such as the Greek cult to Cybele, Rhea the Great Mother of the Gods, the Roman festival of Hilaria, or the Christian Mothering Sundaycelebration (originally a commemoration of Mother Church, not motherhood). However, in some countries, Mother's Day is still synonymous with these older traditions.

Establishment of holiday

The modern holiday of Mother's Day was first celebrated in 1908, when Anna Jarvis held a memorial for her mother at St Andrew's Methodist Church in Grafton, West Virginia. St Andrew's Methodist Church now holds the International Mother's Day Shrine. Her campaign to make Mother's Day a recognized holiday in the United States began in 1905, the year her mother, Ann Reeves Jarvis, died. Ann Jarvis had been a peace activist who cared for wounded soldiers on both sides of the American Civil War, and created Mother's Day Work Clubs to address public health issues. Anna Jarvis wanted to honor her mother by continuing the work she started and to set aside a day to honor all mothers because she believed a mother is "the person who has done more for you than anyone in the world".

In 1908, the U.S. Congress rejected a proposal to make Mother's Day an official holiday, joking that they would also have to proclaim a "Mother-in-law's Day". 

However, owing to the efforts of Anna Jarvis, by 1911 all U.S. states observed the holiday, with some of them officially recognizing Mother's Day as a local holiday (the first being West Virginia, Jarvis' home state, in 1910). In 1914, Woodrow Wilson signed a proclamation designating Mother's Day, held on the second Sunday in May, as a national holiday to honor mothers.

Dates around the world

While the United States holiday was adopted by some other countries, existing celebrations, held on different dates, honoring motherhood have become described as "Mother's Day", such as Mothering Sunday in the United Kingdom or, in Greece. the Eastern Orthodox celebration of the presentation of Jesus Christ (Hazarat Easa A’lyhimus Salaam) to the temple (2 February of Julian Calendar). Both the secular and religious Mother Day are present in Greece. Mothering Sunday is often referred to as "Mother's Day" even though it is an unrelated celebration.

In some countries, the date adopted is one significant to the majority religion, such as Virgin Mary Day in Catholic countries. Other countries selected a date with historical significance. For example, Bolivia's Mother's Day is a fixed date, remembering of a battle in which women participated to defend their children. See the "International history and tradition" section for the complete list.

Some ex-socialist countries, such as Russia, celebrated International Women's Day instead of Mother's Day or simply celebrate both holidays, which is the custom in Ukraine. Kyrgyzstan has recently introduced Mother's Day, but "year on year International Women's Day is certainly increasing in status".

International history and tradition

Northern Pacific Railway postcard for Mother's Day 1916.

Mother's Day gift in 2007

Mother and daughter and Mother's Day card

In most countries, Mother's Day is an observance derived from the holiday as it has evolved in the United States, promoted by companies who saw benefit in making it popular. As adopted by other countries and cultures, the holiday has different meanings, is associated with different events (religious, historical or legendary), and is celebrated on different dates.

In some cases, countries already had existing celebrations honoring motherhood, and their celebrations then adopted several external characteristics from the US holiday, such as giving carnations and other presents to one's mother.

The extent of the celebrations varies greatly. In some countries, it is potentially offensive to one's mother not to mark Mother's Day. In others, it is a little-known festival celebrated mainly by immigrants, or covered by the media as a taste of foreign culture.

Religion & Mother Day

Roman Catholic

In the Roman Catholic Church, the holiday is strongly associated with revering the Virgin Mary. In some Catholic homes, families have a special shrine devoted to the Blessed Virgin Mary.

Orthodox

Eastern Orthodox Churches, a special prayer service is held in honor of the Theotokos Virgin Mary.

In Islam

In Islam there is no concept of Mother's Day, but the Quran teaches that children should give priority to loving their mother over their father.

Hindu tradition

In Hindu tradition, Mother's Day is called "Mata Tirtha Aunshi" is celebrated in countries with a Hindu population, especially in Nepal, where mothers are honored with special foods. The holiday is observed on the new moon day in the month of Baisakh, i.e., April/May. This celebration is based on Hindu religion.

In Buddhism

In Buddhism, the festival of Ullambana is derived from the story of Maudgalyayana and his mother.

By country (A–G)

Albania

In Albania, as in a number of Balkan and Eastern European countries, Mother's Day is celebrated on 8 March, in conjunction with International Women's Day.

Arab world

Mother's Day in most Arab countries is celebrated on 21 March. It was introduced in Egypt by journalist Mustafa Amin^[54] and was first celebrated in 1956.^[55] The practice has since been copied by other Arab countries.

Argentina

In Argentina, Mother's Day is celebrated on the third Sunday of October. The holiday was originally celebrated on 11 October, the old liturgical date for the celebration of the Maternity of the Blessed Virgin Mary but after the Second Vatican Council, which moved the Virgin Mary festivity to 1 January, the Mother's Day started to be celebrated the third Sunday of October because of popular tradition. Argentinais the only country in the world that celebrates Mother's Day on this date.

Armenia

In Armenia, Mother's Day is celebrated on 8 March, and on 7 April as Maternity and Beauty Day.

Australia

In Australia, Mother's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday in May.

Mother’s day in Bangladesh

Mother’s Day 2019 is celebrating in Bangladesh and also worldwide. In this day, the child are wishing their mother with physical gifts, flower, greetings, quotes, and message. Every year the second Sunday of May celebrates as the Mothers day. 

In 2019, the Mother’s day is 12 May 2019 (Sunday). The Childs who are outside from their family whishing their Mothers with greetings, Quotes, and others. So, it is also very important and the value is similar to physical gifts.

Here are some Mother’s day greetings and Image which can share on the social network. Some people are looking for Mothers day Facebook Status and Twitter tweet. So, these people now can get these on this content.

Belarus

Belarus celebrates Mother's Day on 14 October. Like other ex-Communist republics, Belarus used to celebrate only International Women's Day on 8 March. Mother's Day in Belarus was officially established by the Belarusian government, and it was celebrated for the first time in 1996.The celebration of the Virgin Mary (the holiday of Protection of the Holy Mother of God) is celebrated in the same day.

Bhutan

Mother's Day in Bhutan is celebrated on 8 May. It was introduced in Bhutan by the Tourism Council of Bhutan.

Belgium

In Belgium, Mother's Day (Moederdag or Moederkesdag in Dutch and Fête des Mères in French) is celebrated on the second Sunday of May. In the week before this holiday children make little presents at primary school, which they give to their mothers in the early morning of Mother's Day. Typically, the father will buy croissants and other sweet breads and pastries and bring these to the mother while she is still in bed – the beginning of a day of pampering for the mother. There are also many people who celebrate Mother's Day on 15 August instead; these are mostly people around Antwerp, who consider that day (Assumption) the classical Mother's Day and the observance in May an invention for commercial reasons. It was originally established on that day as the result of a campaign by Frans Van Kuyck, a painter and Alderman from Antwerp.

Bolivia

In Bolivia, Mother's Day is celebrated on 27 May. El Día de la Madre Boliviana was passed into law on 8 November 1927, during the presidency of Hernando Siles Reyes. The date commemorates the Battle of La Coronilla, which took place on 27 May 1812, during the Bolivian War of Independence, in what is now the city of Cochabamba. In this battle, women fighting for the country's independence were slaughtered by the Spanish army. It is not a public holiday, but all schools hold activities and festivities throughout the day.

Brazil

In Brazil, Mother's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday of May. The first Mother's Day in Brazil was promoted by Associação Cristã de Moços de Porto Alegre (Young Men's Christian Association of Porto Alegre) on 12 May 1918. In 1932, then President Getúlio Vargas made the second Sunday of May the official date for Mother's Day.

Canada

Mother's Day in Canada is celebrated on the second Sunday in May  and typically involves small celebrations and gift-giving to one's mother, grandmother, or other important female figures in one's family.

China

Mother's Day is becoming more popular in China. Carnations are a very popular Mother's Day gift and the most sold flowers in relation to the day. In 1997 Mother's Day was set as the day to help poor mothers and to remind people of the poor mothers in rural areas such as China's western region. In the People's Daily, the Chinese government's official newspaper, an article explained that "despite originating in the United States, people in China accept the holiday without hesitation because it is in line with the country's traditional ethics – respect for the elderly and filial piety towards parents."

Czech Republic

In the Czech Republic, Mother's Day is celebrated every second Sunday in May. It started in former Czechoslovakia in 1923.^[34] The promoter of this celebration was Alice Masaryková.^[34] After World War II communists replaced Mother's Day with International Woman's Day, celebrated on 8 March. The former Czechoslovakia celebrated Women's Day until the Velvet Revolution in 1989. After the split of the country in 1993, the Czech Republic started celebrating Mother's Day again.

Egypt

Mother's Day in Egypt is celebrated on 21 March, the first day of spring in the northern hemisphere. It was introduced in Egypt by journalist Mustafa Amin in his book Smiling America (1943). The idea was overlooked at the time. Later Amin heard the story of a widowed mother who devoted her whole life to raising her son until he became a doctor. The son then married and left without showing any gratitude to his mother. Hearing this, Amin became motivated to promote "Mother's Day".

Ethiopia

Mother's Day is celebrated for three days in Ethiopia, after the end of rainy season. It comes in mid-fall where people enjoy a three-day feast called "Antrosht".

For the feast, ingredients will be brought by the children for a traditional hash recipe. The ingredients are divided along genders, with girls bringing spices, vegetables, cheese and butter, while the boys bring a lamb or bull. The mother hands out to the family the hash.

A celebration takes place after the meal. The mothers and daughters anoint themselves using butter on their faces and chests. While honoring their family and heroes, men sing songs.^[65]

Estonia

In Estonia, Mother's Day (emadepäev in Estonian) is celebrated on the second Sunday of May. It is recognized nationally, but is not a public holiday.

Finland

In Finland, Mother's Day (äitienpäivä in Finnish) is celebrated on the second Sunday of May. It is recognized nationally, and is a public holiday. It is usually celebrated at homes where children or grand children bring Mother´s day cards that they have drawn to their mothers and grandmothers. Usually some food, coffee and cakes are served for guests. Grown up children visit their parents homes and bring traditionally Mother´s day roses or other flowers accompanied with a Mother´s day card. The president of Finland honors with medals every year some mothers who have done something exceptional and positive during the year.

France

In France, amidst alarm at the low birth rate, there were attempts in 1896 and 1904 to create a national celebration honoring the mothers of large families. In 1906 ten mothers who had nine children each were given an award recognising "High Maternal Merit" ("Haut mérite maternel"). American World War I soldiers fighting in France popularized the US Mother's Day holiday created by Anna Jarvis. They sent so much mail back to their country for Mother's Day that the Union Franco-Américaine created a postal card for that purpose.^] In 1918, also inspired by Jarvis, the town of Lyon wanted to celebrate a "journée des Mères", but instead decided to celebrate a "Journée Nationale des Mères de familles nombreuses." The holiday was more inspired by anti-depopulation efforts than by the US holiday, with medals awarded to the mothers of large families. The French government made the day official in 1920 as a day for mothers of large families.

 In 1941, by initiative of Philippe Pétain, the wartime Vichy government used the celebration in support of their policy to encourage larger families, but all mothers were now honored, even mothers with smaller families.

In 1950, after the war, the celebration was reinstated. The law of 24 May 1950 required (in Article 1) that the Republic pay official homage to French Mothers. Article 2 stated it should be celebrated on the last Sunday in May as the "Fête des Mères" (except when Pentecost fell on that day, in which case it was moved to the first Sunday in June). Article 3 stated that all expenditure shall be covered from the budget of the Ministry of Public Health and Population.

Georgia

Georgia celebrates Mother's Day on 3 March. It was declared by the first President of Georgia Zviad Gamsakhurdia in order to replace the International Women Day, and it was officially approved by the Supreme Council in 1991. Nowadays Georgia celebrates both Mother's Day on 3 March and International Women's Day on 8 March.

Germany

In the 1920s, Germany had the lowest birthrate in Europe, and the declining trend was continuing. This was attributed to women's participation in the labor market. At the same time, influential groups in society (politicians of left and right, churchwomen, and feminists) believed that mothers should be honored but could not agree on how to do so. However, all groups strongly agreed on the promotion of the values of motherhood. The head of the Association of German Florists cited "the inner conflict of our Volk and the loosening of the family" as his reason for introducing the holiday. He expected that the holiday would unite the divided country. In 1925, the Mother's Day Committee joined the task force for the recovery of the volk, and the holiday stopped depending on commercial interests and began emphasizing the need to increase the population in Germany by promoting motherhood.

The holiday was then seen as a means to encourage women to bear more children, which nationalists saw as a way to rejuvenate the nation. The holiday did not celebrate individual women, but an idealized standard of motherhood. The progressive forces resisted the implementation of the holiday because it was backed by so many conservatives, and because they saw it as a way to eliminate the rights of working women. The guidelines for the subsidies had eugenics criteria, but there is no indication that social workers ever implemented them in practice, and subsidies were given preferentially to families in economic need rather than to families with more children or "healthier" children.

By country (H–M)

Hungary

In Hungary, Mother's Day is celebrated on the first Sunday of May.

India

The modern Mother's Day has been assimilated into Indian culture and is celebrated every year on the second Sunday of May Indians do not celebrate the occasion as a religious event; its celebration is mostly restricted to urban areas where the occasion has been largely commercialized.

Indonesia

Indonesian Mother's Day (Indonesian: Hari Ibu) is celebrated nationally on 22 December. The date was made an official holiday by President Sukarno under Presidential Decree No. 316/1953, on the 25th anniversary of the 1928 Indonesian Women Congress. The day originally sought to celebrate the spirit of Indonesian women and to improve the condition of the nation. Today, the meaning of Mother's Day has changed, and it is celebrated by expressing love and gratitude to mothers. People present gifts to mothers (such as flowers) and hold surprise parties and competitions, which include cooking and kebaya wearing. People also allow mothers a day off from domestic chores.

The holiday is celebrated on the anniversary of the opening day of the first Indonesian Women Congress (Indonesian: Kongres Perempuan Indonesia), which was held from 22 to 25 December 1928. The Congress took place in a building called Dalem Jayadipuran, which now serves as the office of the Center of History and Traditional Values Preservation (Indonesian: Balai Pelestarian Sejarah dan Nilai Tradisional) in Brigjen Katamso Street, Yogyakarta. The Congress was attended by 30 feminist organizations from 12 cities in Javaand Sumatra. In Indonesia, feminist organizations have existed since 1912, inspired by Indonesian heroines of the 19th century, e.g., Kartini, Martha Christina Tiahahu, Cut Nyak Meutia, Maria Walanda Maramis, Dewi Sartika, Nyai Ahmad Dahlan, Rasuna Said, etc.^[45] The Congress intended to improve women's rights in education and marriage.

Indonesia also celebrates the Kartini Day (Indonesian: Hari Kartini) on 21 April, in memory of activist Raden Ajeng Kartini. This is a celebration of the emancipation of women. The observance was instituted at the 1938 Indonesian Women Congress.^[80]

During President Suharto's New Order (1965–1998), government propaganda used Mother's Day and Kartini Day to inculcate into women the idea that they should be docile and stay at home.

Iran

In Iran, Mother's Day is celebrated on 20 Jumada al-thani. This is the sixth month in the Islamic calendar (a lunar calendar) and every year the holiday falls on a different day of the Gregorian calendar. This is the birthday anniversary of Fatimah, Prophet Muhammad Sawllallahu A’lyhi Wasallaam’s only daughter.  Mother's Day was originally observed on 16 December but the date was changed after the Iranian Revolution in 1979. The celebration is both Women's Day (replacing International Women's Day) and Mother's Day.

 In 1960, the Institute for Women Protection adopted the Western holiday and established it on 25 Azar (16 December), the date the Institute was founded. The Institute's action had the support of Queen Farah Pahlavi, the wife of the last Shah of Persia, who promoted the construction of maternity clinics in remote parts of the country to commemorate the day. The Shah's government honored and gave awards to women who represented the idealized view of the regime, including mothers who had many healthy children.

According to Shahla Haeri, the Islamic Republic government has used the holiday to "control and channel women's movements" and to promote role models for the traditional concept of family. Fatimah Radiallahu A’nhaa is seen by these critics as the chosen model of a woman completely dedicated to certain traditionally sanctioned feminine roles. However, supporters of the choice contend that there is much more to her life story than simply such "traditional" roles.

Israel

The Jewish population of Israel used to celebrate Mother's Day on Shevat 30 of the Jewish calendar, which falls between 30 January and 1 March. The celebration was set as the same date that Henrietta Szold died (13 February 1945). Szold is considered the "mother" of all those children, and that is why her annual remembrance day (יום השנה) was set as Mother's Day (יוֹם הָאֵם, yom ha'em). The holiday has evolved over time, becoming a celebration of mutual love inside the family, called Family Day (יוֹם הַמִשְּפָּחָה, yom hamishpacha). This holiday is mainly celebrated in preschools with an activity to which parents are invited. Mother's Day is mainly celebrated by children at kindergartens. There are no longer mutual gifts among members of the family, and there is no longer any commercialization of the celebration. It is not an official holiday.

Italy

Mother's Day in Italy was celebrated for the first time on 24 December 1933 as the "Day of the mother and the child" (Giornata della madre e del fanciullo). It was instituted by the Opera nazionale maternità e infanzia in order to publicly reward the most prolific Italian women every year.

After World War II, Mother's Day was first celebrated on 12 May 1957 in Assisi, at the initiative of Reverend Otello Migliosi, the parish priest of the Tordibetto church. This celebration was so popular that in the following year Mother's Day was adopted throughout Italy. On 18 December 1958, a proposal was presented to the Italian Senate to make the holiday official.

Japan

In Japan, Mother's Day (母の日 Haha no Hi) was initially commemorated during the Shōwa period as the birthday of Empress Kōjun (mother of Emperor Akihito) on 6 March. This was established in 1931 when the Imperial Women's Union was organized. In 1937, the first meeting of "Praise Mothers" was held on 8 May, and in 1949 Japanese society adopted the second Sunday of May as the official date for Mother's Day in Japan.

Kyrgyzstan

In Kyrgyzstan, Mother's Day is celebrated on 19 May every year. The holiday was first celebrated in 2012. Mothers are also honored on International Women's Day.

This article is about a holiday celebrating mothers and motherhood. For other uses, see Mother's Day (disambiguation).

Latvia

Mother's Day in Latvia was celebrated for the first time in 1922. Since 1934, Mother's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday of May. After the end of the soviet occupation of Baltic states celebration was resumed in 1992. Mothers are also honored on International Women's Day.

Lithuania

Mother's Day in Lithuania was celebrated for the first time in 1928. In Lithuania, Mother's Day is celebrated on the first Sunday of May.

Malawi

In Malawi. Mother's Day is a public holiday. The day is observed on 15 October or the following workday. It is celebrated on the UN's World Rural Women's Day.

Maldives

In the Maldives, Mother's Day is celebrated on 13 May. The day is celebrated in different ways. Children give gifts and spend time with their mothers. Daughters give their mothers cards and handmade gifts and sons give their mothers gifts and flowers. Maldivians love to celebrate Mother's day, and they have it specially written on their calendar.

Malta

The first mention of Mother's Day in Malta occurred during the Radio Children's Programmes run by Frans H. Said in May 1961. Within a few years, Mother's Day became one of the most popular dates in the Maltese calendar. In Malta, this day is commemorated on the second Sunday in May.

Mexico

In Mexico, the government of Álvaro Obregón imported the Mother's Day holiday from the US in 1922, and the newspaper Excélsior held a massive promotional campaign for the holiday that year. The conservative government tried to use the holiday to promote a more conservative role for mothers in families, but that perspective was criticized by the socialists as promoting an unrealistic image of a woman who was not good for much more than breeding.

By country (N–S)

Nepal

In Nepal, there is a festival equivalent to Mother's Day. It is celebrated according to the lunar calendar. It falls on the last day of the dark fortnight in the month of Baishakh which falls in April–May (in 2015, it will occur on 18 April). The dark fortnight lasts for 15 days from the full moon to the new moon. This festival is observed to commemorate and honor mothers, and it is celebrated by giving gifts to mothers and remembering mothers who are no more.

Netherlands

In the Netherlands, Mother's Day was introduced as early as 1910 by the Dutch branch of the Salvation Army. The Royal Dutch Society for Horticulture and Botany, a group protecting the interest of Dutch florists, worked to promote the holiday; they hoped to emulate the commercial success achieved by American florists. They were imitating the campaign already underway by florists in Germany and Austria, but they were aware that the traditions had originated in the US.

New Zealand

In New Zealand, Mother's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday in May. Mother's Day is not a public holiday. The New Zealand tradition is to give cards and gifts and to serve mothers breakfast in bed.

Nicaragua

In Nicaragua, the Día de la Madre has been celebrated on 30 May since the early 1940s. The date was chosen by President Anastasio Somoza García because it was the birthday of Casimira Sacasa, his wife's mother.

North Korea

Mother's Day is celebrated on 16 November as a public holiday in North Korea. The date takes its significance from the First National Meeting of Mothers held in 1961, for which Kim Il-sung, the leader of the country, published a work called The Duty of Mothers in the Education of Children. The date was designated as Mother's Day in May 2012 by the Presidium of the Supreme People's Assembly but only became a public holiday and appeared on the North Korean calendar starting in 2015.

Norway

Mother's Day was first celebrated on 9 February 1919 and was initially organized by religious institutions. Later it has become a family day, and the mother is often treated to breakfast in bed, flowers and cake.

It has gradually become a major commercial event, with special pastries, flowers and other presents offered by retailers. Day-cares and primary schools often encourage children to make cards and other gifts.

Pakistan

In Pakistan, Mother's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday of May. Media channels celebrate with special shows. Individuals honor their mothers by giving gifts and commemorative articles. Individuals who have lost their mothers pray and pay their respects to their loved ones lost. Schools hold special programs in order to acknowledge the efforts of their mothers.

Panama

In Panama, Mother's Day is celebrated on 8 December, the same day as the Feast of the Immaculate Conception. This date was suggested in 1930 by the wife of Panama's President Florencio Harmodio Arosemena. 8 December was adopted as Mother's Day under Law 69, which was passed the same year.

According to another account, in 1924 the Rotary Club of Panama asked that Mother's Day be celebrated on 11 May. Politician Aníbal D. Ríos changed the proposal so that the celebration would be held on 8 December. He then established Mother's Day as a national holiday on that date.

Paraguay

In Paraguay, Mother's Day is celebrated on 15 May, the same day as the Dia de la Patria, which celebrates the independence of Paraguay. This date was chosen to honor the role played by Juana María de Lara in the events of 14 May 1811 that led to Paraguay's independence.

In 2008, the Paraguayan Minister of Culture, Bruno Barrios, lamented this coincidence because, in Paraguay, Mother's Day is much more popular than independence day and the independence celebration goes unnoticed. As a result, Barrios asked that the celebration be moved to the end of the month.^[114] A group of young people attempted to gather 20,000 signatures to ask the Parliament to move Mother's Day.^[114] In 2008, the Comisión de festejos (Celebration Committee) of the city of Asunción asked that Mother's Day be moved to the second Sunday of May.^[115]

Philippines

In the Philippines, Mother's Day is officially celebrated on the second Sunday of May, but it is not a public holiday.^[116] Although not a traditional Filipino holiday, the occasion owes its popularity to American Colonial Period influence.

According to a 2008 article by the Philippine News Agency, in 1921 the Ilocos Norte Federation of Women's Clubs asked to declare the first Monday of December as Mother's Day. In response, Governor-General Charles Yeater issued Circular No. 33 declaring the celebration. In 1937 President Manuel L. Quezon issued Presidential Proclamation No. 213, changing the name of the occasion from "Mother's Day" to "Parent's Day" to address the complaints that there wasn't a "Father's Day". In 1980 President Ferdinand Marcos issued Presidential Proclamation No. 2037 proclaiming the date as both Mother's Day and Father's Day. In 1988 President Corazon Aquino issued Presidential Proclamation No. 266, changing Mother's Day to the second Sunday of May, and Father's Day to the third Sunday of June, discontinuing the traditional date.^[117] In 1998 President Joseph Estrada returned both celebrations to the first Monday of December.^[116]

Portugal

In Portugal, the "Dia da Mãe" ("Mother's Day") is an unofficial holiday held each year on the first Sunday of May (sometimes coinciding with Labour Day). The weeks leading up to this Sunday, school children spend a few hours a day to prepare a gift for their mothers, aided by their school teachers. In general, mothers receive gifts by their family members and this day is meant to be celebrated with the whole family. 

Romania

In Romania, Mother's Day has been celebrated on the first Sunday of May since 2010. Law 319/2009 made both Mother's Day and Father's Day official holidays in Romania. The measure was passed thanks to campaign efforts from the Alliance Fighting Discrimination Against Fathers (TATA).^[118] Previously, Mother's Day was celebrated on 8 March, as part of International Women's Day (a tradition dating back to when Romania was part of the Eastern bloc). Today, Mother's Day and International Women's Day are two separate holidays, with International Women's Day being held on its original date of 8 March.

Russia

Traditionally Russia had celebrated International Women's Day and Mother's Day on 8 March, an inheritance from the Soviet Union, and a public holiday.^[119] Women's Day was first celebrated on the last Sunday in February in 1913 in Russia.^[120]

In 1917, demonstrations marking International Women's Day in Saint Petersburg on the last Sunday in February (which fell on 8 March on the Gregorian calendar) initiated the February Revolution. Following the October Revolution later that year, the Bolshevik Alexandra Kollontai persuaded Vladimir Lenin to make it an official holiday in the Soviet Union, and it was established, but was a working day until 1965.

On 8 May 1965, by the decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, International Women's Day was declared a non-working day in the Soviet Union "in commemoration of the outstanding merits of Soviet women in communistic construction, in the defense of their Fatherland during the Great Patriotic War, in their heroism and selflessness at the front and in the rear, and also marking the great contribution of women to strengthening friendship between peoples, and the struggle for peace. But still, women's day must be celebrated as are other holidays."^[121]

Samoa

In Samoa, Mother's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday in May, and as a recognised national holiday on the Monday following.

Singapore

In Singapore, Mother's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday of May. It is not recognized as a holiday by the government.

Slovakia

Czechoslovakia celebrated only Women's Day until the Velvet Revolution in 1989. After the country split in 1993, Slovakia started celebrating both Women's Day and Mother's Day. The politicization of Women's Day has affected the official status of Mother's Day. Center-right parties want Mother's Day to replace Women's Day, and social-democrats want to make Women's Day an official holiday. Currently, both days are festive, but they are not "state holidays". In the Slovak Republic, Mother's Day is celebrated every second Sunday in May.^[34]

South Africa

In South Africa, Mother's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday of May. It is not recognized as a holiday by the government. The tradition is to give cards and gifts and to serve mothers breakfast in bed or to go out to lunch together as a family.

South Sudan

In South Sudan, Mother's Day is celebrated on the first Monday in July. The president Salva Kiir Mayardit proclaimed Mother's Day as the first Monday in July after handing over from Sudan. Children in South Sudan are presenting mothers with gifts and flowers.

Spain

In Spain, Mother's Day or Día de la Madre is celebrated on the first Sunday of May. The weeks leading up to this Sunday, school children spend a few hours a day to prepare a gift for their mothers, aided by their school teachers. In general, mothers receive gifts by their family members & this day is meant to be celebrated with the whole family. It is also said to be celebrated in May, as May is the month dedicated to the Virgin Mary (mother of Jesus) according to Catholicism.The idea of a month dedicated specifically to Mary can be traced back to baroque times. Although it wasn't always held during May, Mary Month included thirty daily spiritual exercises honoring Mary.^[122]

Sri Lanka

In Sri Lanka, Mother's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday of May.

Sweden

In Sweden, Mother's Day was first celebrated in 1919, by initiative of the author Cecilia Bååth-Holmberg. It took several decades for the day to be widely recognized. Swedes born in the early nineteen hundreds typically did not celebrate the day because of the common belief that the holiday was invented strictly for commercial purposes. This was in contrast to Father's Day, which has been widely celebrated in Sweden since the late 1970s. Mother's Day in Sweden is celebrated on the last Sunday in May.

Switzerland

In Switzerland, the "règle de Pentecôte" law allows Mother's Day to be celebrated a week late if the holiday falls on the same day as Pentecost. In 2008, merchants declined to move the date.^[123]

By country (T–Z)

Taiwan

In Taiwan, Mother's Day is celebrated on the second Sunday of the month of May, coinciding with Buddha's birthday and the traditional ceremony of "washing the Buddha". In 1999 the Taiwanese government established the second Sunday of May as Buddha's birthday, so they would be celebrated in the same day.

Since 2006, the Tzu Chi, the largest charity organization in Taiwan, celebrates the Tzu Chi Day, Mother's Day and Buddha's birthday all together, as part of a unified celebration and religious observance.

Thailand

Mother's day in Thailand is celebrated on the birthday of the Queen of Thailand, Queen Sirikit (12 August). The holiday was first celebrated around the 1980s as part of the campaign by the Prime Minister of Thailand Prem Tinsulanonda to promote Thailand's Royal family. Father's Day is celebrated on the late King Bhumibol Adulyadej's birthday.

Ukraine

Ukraine celebrates Mother's Day (Ukrainian: День Матері) on the second Sunday of May. In Ukraine, Mother's Day officially became a holiday only in 1999^[132] and is celebrated since 2000. Since then Ukrainian society struggles to transition the main holiday that recognizes woman from the International Women's Day, a holiday adopted under the Soviet Union that remained as a legacy in Ukraine after its collapse, to Mother's Day.

United Kingdom

Balloons outside, in the week before Mothering Sunday 2008

The United Kingdom celebrates Mothering Sunday, which falls on the fourth Sunday of Lent (31 March in 2019). This holiday has its roots in the church and was originally unrelated to the American holiday.^[5][133] Most historians believe that Mothering Sunday evolved from the 16th-century Christian practice of visiting one's mother church annually on Laetare Sunday.^[134] As a result of this tradition, most mothers were reunited with their children on this day when young apprentices and young women in service were released by their masters for that weekend. As a result of the influence of the American Mother's Day, Mothering Sunday transformed into the tradition of showing appreciation to one's mother.

United States

 Mother's Day (United States)

Handmade Mother's Day gifts

The United States celebrates Mother's Day on the second Sunday in May. In 1872 Julia Ward Howe called for women to join in support of disarmament and asked for 2 June 1872, to be established as a "Mother's Day for Peace". Her 1870 "Appeal to womanhood throughout the world" is sometimes referred to as Mother's Day Proclamation. But Howe's day was not for honouring mothers but for organizing pacifist mothers against war. In the 1880s and 1890s there were several further attempts to establish an American "Mother's Day", but these did not succeed beyond the local level.

In the United States, Mother's Day remains one of the biggest days for sales of flowers, greeting cards, and the like; Mother's Day is also the biggest holiday for long-distance telephone calls.^[140]Moreover, churchgoing is also popular on Mother's Day, yielding the highest church attendance after Christmas Eve and Easter. Many worshippers celebrate the day with carnations, coloured if the mother is living and white if she is dead.

International Women's Day

(Courtesy of Wikipedia, Encyclopedia)

International Women's Day
German poster for International Women's Day, March 8, 1914.[a] This poster was banned in the German Empire.[2]
Observed by	Worldwide
Type	International
Significance	·         Civil awareness day ·         Women and girls day ·         Anti-sexism day ·         Anti-Discrimination Day
Date	March 8
Next time	March 8, 2020
Frequency	Annual

OIC & WORLD MUSLIM WOMEN

International Women's Day (IWD) is celebrated on March 8 every year. It is a focal point in the movement for women's rights.

After the Socialist Party of America organized a Women's Day on February 28, 1909, in New York, German revolutionary Clara Zetkinproposed at the 1910 International Socialist Woman's Conference that 8 March be honored as a day annually in memory of working women. The day has been celebrated as International Women's Day or International Working Women's Day ever since. After women gained suffrage in Soviet Russia in 1917, March 8 became a national holiday there.

The United Nationsbegan celebrating the day in 1975.

Commemoration of International Women's Day today ranges from being a public holiday in some countries to being largely ignored elsewhere. In some places, it is a day of protest; in others, it is a day that celebrates womanhood.

History

Women's demonstration for bread and peace – March 8, 1917, Petrograd, Russia

Clara Zetkin and Rosa Luxemburgin January 1910 with headcap.

Soviet postage stamps

British poster for Women's Day March 1974

Poster for Women's Day March in London, 1975

The earliest Women's Day observance, called "National Woman's Day," was held on February 28, 1909, in New York, organized by the Socialist Party of America^[10] at the suggestion of activist Theresa Malkiel Though there have been claims that the day was commemorating a protest by women garment workers in New York on March 8, 1857, researchers have described this as a myth.

On March 19, 1911, IWD was marked for the first time, by over a million people in Austria, Denmark, Germany and Switzerland. In the Austro-Hungarian Empire alone, there were 300 demonstrations. In Vienna, women paraded on the Ringstrasse and carried banners honouring the martyrs of the Paris Commune.^[16] Women demanded that they be given the right to vote and to hold public office. They also protested against employment sex discrimination.

The Americans continued to celebrate National Women's Day on the last Sunday in February.

Female members of the Australian Builders Labourers Federation march on International Women's Day 1975 in Sydney.

In 1913 Russian women observed their first International Women's Day on the last Saturday in February (by the Julian calendar then used in Russia).

In 1914 International Women's Day was held on March 8 in Germany, possibly because that day was a Sunday, and now it is always held on March 8 in all countries. The 1914 observance of the Day in Germany was dedicated to women's right to vote, which German women did not win until 1918.

In London there was a march from Bow to Trafalgar Square in support of women's suffrage on March 8, 1914. Activist Sylvia Pankhurst was arrested in front of Charing Cross station on her way to speak in Trafalgar Square.

On March 8, 1917, on the Gregorian calendar, in the capital of the Russian Empire, Petrograd, women textile workers began a demonstration, covering the whole city. Women in Saint Petersburg went on strike that day for "Bread and Peace" – demanding the end of World War-I.

The United Nations began celebrating International Women's Day in the International Women's Year, 1975. In 1977, the United Nations General Assembly invited member states to proclaim March 8 as the UN Day for women's rights and world peace.

Significance	Raising awareness of issues facing girls internationally, such as education, nutrition, forced child marriage, legal rights, and medical rights
Date	11 October
Frequency	annual
First time	11 October 2012

International Day of the Girl Child 

(Courtesy of Wikipedia, Encyclopedia)

International Day of the Girl Child is an international observance day declared by the United Nations; it is also called the Day of Girls and the International Day of the Girl. October 11, 2012, was the first Day of the Girl Child. The observation supports more opportunity for girls and increases awareness of gender inequality faced by girls worldwide based upon their gender. This inequality includes areas such as access to education, nutrition, legal rights, medical care, and protection from discrimination, violence against women. The celebration of the day also "reflects the successful emergence of girls and young women as a distinct cohort in development policy, programming, campaigning and research.

Background

International Day of the Girl increases awareness of issues faced by girls around the world. According to USAID’s statistics that more than 62 million girls around the world had no access to education, as of c. 2014, worldwide and collectively, girls ages 5 to 14 spend more than 160 million hours more on household chores than boys of the same age do. 

History

The International Day of Girls initiative began as a project of Plan International, a non-governmental organization that operates worldwide.^[11]  Plan International representatives in Canada approached the Canadian federal government to seek to the coalition of supporters raised awareness of the initiative internationally. Eventually, Plan International urged the United Nations to become involved.^[12]

International Day of Girls was formally proposed as a resolution by Canada in the United Nations General Assembly. Rona Ambrose, Canada's Minister for the Status of Women, sponsored the resolution; a delegation of women and girls made presentations in support of the initiative at the 55th United Nations Commission on the Status of Women. On December 19, 2011, the United Nations General Assembly voted to pass a resolution adopting October 11, 2012 as the inaugural International Day of Girls.

Events worldwide

Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus railway station was illuminated with pink color in honour of the 2015 International Day of the Girl Child.

Various events to promote the Day of Girls are planned in several countries. Some are sponsored by the United Nations, such as a concert in Mumbai, India.^[19] Non-governmental organizations, such as Girl Guides Australia, also support events and activities for International Day of Girls.

Father–Daughter Day

(Courtesy of Wikipedia, Encyclopedia)

Father–Daughter Day
Observed by	United States
Type	National
Significance	Honoring relationships of fathers and daughters
Date	Second Sunday in October
2018 date	October 14
2019 date	October 13
2020 date	October 11
2021 date	October 10
Frequency	Annual
First time	2017
Related to	In history and celebrations:Father's Day, Mother's Day, Parents' Day, National Grandparents Day.

Father–Daughter Day (sometimes called National Father–Daughter Day) is a holiday recognized annually on the second Sunday of October in the United States, honoring the relationship between a father and a daughter.^[1] Unlike Mother's Day and Father's Day, it is not federally recognized.

History

The U.S. holiday was originally conceived by Smokey Robinson to honor his relationship with his six daughters. In human development the relationship between fathers and sons overshadows the bond with daughters. This holiday promotes the development of young women through their father.^[2]

Robinson stated: “There are many different kinds of families today, and we know that all parental relationships are important to the healthy development of children, but the father/daughter bond is unique and one that is near to my heart. The father/daughter relationship shapes a young woman’s perspective of men and what to expect from them. I believe that female empowerment begins in the home and fathers must set a healthy example through their personal actions and interactions.”

Father absence in the United States

Fifteen million U.S. children live without a father. While father absence mainly results from parental divorce and separation, other factors such as family poverty, developmental difficulties have been associated with father absence, the effects of which have been explained by various theoretical approaches. Fathers are traditionally deemed a provider of protection and support for the child's development. Early maturing girls have been found to be at risk for teenage pregnancy, drinking and weight problems, and giving birth to low birth weight infants.^[13]

Hijab and dress code

A Saudi woman wearing a traditional niqab.

A hijab is a traditional Islamic norm whereby women are required "to draw their outer garments around them (when they go out or are among men)" and dress in a modest manner.^[81] Saudi Arabia is different from many Islamic societies in the extent of the covering that it considers Islamically correct hijab (everything except the hands and eyes) and the fact that covering is enforced by Mutaween or religious police.^{[contradictory]}

Among non-mahram men, women must cover the parts of the body that are awrah (not meant to be exposed). In much of Islam, a women's face is not considered awrah. In Saudi Arabia and some other Arab states, all of the body is considered awrah except the hands and eyes. Accordingly, most women are expected to wear the hijab (head covering), a full black cloak called an abaya, and a face-veil called niqab. Many historians and Islamic scholars hold that the custom, if not requirement, of the veil predates Islam in parts of the region. They argue that the Quran was interpreted to require the veil as part of adapting it to tribal traditions.^{[82][83][84][85]}

Traditionally, women's clothing must not reveal anything about her body. It is supposed to be thick, opaque, and loose. It should not resemble the clothing of men (or non-Muslims).^[86]

The strictness of the dress code varies by region. In Jeddah, for example, many women go out with their faces uncovered; Riyadh however, is more conservative. Some shops sell designer abaya that have elements such as flared sleeves or a tighter form. Fashionable abaya come in colors other than black, and may be decorated with patterns and glitter. According to one designer, abaya are "no longer just abayas. Today, they reflect a woman's taste and personality."^[32][87][88]

Although the dress code is often regarded in the West as a highly visible symbol of oppression, Saudi women place the dress code low on the list of priorities for reform or leave it off entirely.^[89] Journalist Sabria Jawhar complains that Western readers of her blog on The Huffington Post are obsessed with her veil. She calls the niqab "trivial":^[28][29]

(People) lose sight of the bigger issues like jobs and education. That's the issue of women's rights, not the meaningless things like passing legislation in France or Quebec to ban the burqa ... Non-Saudis presume to know what's best for Saudis, like Saudis should modernize and join the 21st century or that Saudi women need to be free of the veil and abaya ... And by freeing Saudi women, the West really means they want us to be just like them, running around in short skirts, nightclubbing and abandoning our religion and culture.

Some women say they want to wear a veil. They cite Islamic piety, pride in family traditions, and less sexual harassment from male colleagues. For many women, the dress code is a part of the right to modesty that Islam guarantees women. Some also perceive attempts at reform as anti-Islamic intrusion by Westerners. Faiza al-Obaidi, a biology professor, said: "They fear Islam, and we are the world's foremost Islamic nation."^[44]

In 2014, a woman became the first female anchor to appear on Saudi state television without a headscarf.^[90] She was reporting as a news anchor from London for the Al Ekhbariyachannel.^[90]

In 2017, a woman was arrested for appearing in a viral video dressed in a short skirt and halter top walking around an ancient fort in Ushayqir. She was released following an international outcry.^[91] A few months earlier, another woman (a Saudi) was detained for a short while, after she appeared in public without a hijab. Although she did not wear a crop top and short skirt, she was still arrested.^[92]

Children

A young Muslim couple and their toddler in Mecca

There are no laws defining the minimum age for marriage in Saudi Arabia. Most religious authorities have justified the marriage of girls as young as nine and boys as young as fifteen.^[198] However, they believe a father can marry off his daughter at any age as long as consummation is delayed until she reaches puberty.^[199] A 2009 think-tank report on women's education concluded "Early marriage (before 16 years) ... negatively influences their chances of employment and the economic status of the family. It also negatively affects their health as they are at greater risk of dying from causes related to pregnancy and childbirth."^[132] A 2004 United Nations report found that 16 percent of teenage Saudi women were or had been married.^[188]

A 2010 news report documented the case of Shareefa, an abandoned child-bride. Shareefa was married to an 80-year-old man when she was 10. The deal was arranged by the girl's father in exchange for money, against the wishes of her mother. Her husband divorced her a few months after the marriage without her knowledge, and abandoned her at the age of 21. The mother is attempting legal action, arguing that "Shareefa is now 21, she has lost more than 10 years of her life, her chance for an education, a decent marriage and normal life. Who is going to take responsibility for what she has gone through?”^[200]

The government's Saudi Human Rights Commission condemned child marriage in 2009, calling it "a clear violation against children and their psychological, moral and physical rights." It recommended that marriage officials adhere to a minimum age of 17 for females and 18 for males.^[132][201]

Female genital cutting is reported as rare, possibly occurring among minorities such as African immigrants.^{[188][202][203][204]} Some organizations are skeptical about whether or not official statistics can be trusted, because of the government's censorship of sensitive information and restrictions on independent aid organizations.^[205][206]

In 2013 the Directorate General of Passports allowed Saudi women married to foreigners to sponsor their children, so that the children can have residency permits (iqamas) with their mothers named as the sponsors. Iqamas also grant children the right to work in the private sector in Saudi Arabia while on the sponsorship of their mothers, and allow mothers to bring their children living abroad back to Saudi Arabia if they have no criminal records. Foreign men married to Saudi women were also granted the right to work in the private sector while on the sponsorship of their wives on condition that the title on their iqamas should be written as "husband of a Saudi wife" and that they should have valid passports enabling them to return to their homes at any time.^[207]

Parental authority

Legally, children belong to their father, who has sole guardianship. If a divorce takes place, women may be granted custody of their young children until they reach the age of seven. Older children are often awarded to the father or the paternal grandparents. Women cannot confer citizenship to children born to a non-Saudi Arabian father.^[188]

Inheritance issues

The inheritance share of women in Saudi is generally smaller than that to which men are entitled. The Quran states that daughters should inherit half as much as sons.^{[Quran 4:11][208]} In rural areas, some women are also deprived of their entitled share as they are considered to be dependents of their fathers or husbands. Marrying outside the tribe is also grounds for limiting women's inheritance.^[188][209]

Sexual violence and trafficking

See also: Rape in Saudi Arabia

Under Sharia law, generally enforced by the government, the courts will punish a rapist with anything from flogging to execution. As there is no penal code in Saudi Arabia, there is no written law which specifically criminalizes rape or prescribes its punishment. The rape victim is often punished as well, if she had first entered the rapist's company in violation of purdah. There is no prohibition against spousal or statutory rape.

Migrant women, often working as domestic helpers, represent a particularly vulnerable group and their living conditions are sometimes slave-like and include physical oppression and rape. In 2006, U.S. ambassador John Miller, Director of the Office to Monitor and Combat Trafficking in Persons, said the forced labor of foreign women domestic workers was the most common kind of slavery in Saudi Arabia. Miller claimed human trafficking is a problem everywhere, but Saudi Arabia's many foreign domestic workers and loopholes in the system cause many to fall victim to abuse and torture.^[210]

Women, as well as men, may be subject to harassment by the country's religious police, the mutaween, in some cases including arbitrary arrest and physical punishments.^[211] A UN report cites a case in which two mutaween were charged with molesting a woman; the charges were dismissed on the grounds that mutaween are immune from prosecution.^[22]

In some cases, victims of sexual assault are punished for khalwa, being alone with an unrelated male, prior to the assault. In the Qatif rape case, an 18-year-old victim of kidnappingand gang rape was sentenced by a Saudi court to six months in prison and 90 lashes. The judge ruled she violated laws on segregation of the sexes, as she was in an unrelated man's car at the time of the attack. She was also punished for trying to influence the court through the media.^[212] The Ministry of Justice defended the sentence, saying she committed adultery and "provoked the attack" because she was "indecently dressed."^[213] Her attackers were found guilty of kidnapping and were sentenced for prison terms ranging from two to ten years.^[214]

According to Human Rights Watch, one of the rapists filmed the assault with his mobile phone but the judges refused to allow it as evidence.^[215][216] The victim told ABC News that her brother tried to kill her after the attack.^[217] The case attracted international attention. The United Nations criticized social attitudes and the system of male guardianship, which deter women from reporting crimes. The UN report argued that women are prevented from escaping abusive environments because of their lack of legal and economic independence. They are further oppressed, according to the UN, by practices surrounding divorce and child custody, the absence of a law criminalizing violence against women, and inconsistencies in the application of laws and procedures.^[218]

The case prompted Egyptian-American journalist Mona Eltahawy to comment "What kind of God would punish a woman for rape? That is a question that Muslims must ask of Saudi Arabia because unless we challenge the determinedly anti-women teachings of Islam in Saudi Arabia, that kingdom will always get a free pass."^[216] In December 2007, King Abdullah pardoned the victim, but did not agree that the judge had erred.^[22][213]

In 2009, the Saudi Gazette reported that a 23-year-old unmarried woman was sentenced to one year in prison and 100 lashes for adultery. She had been gang-raped, become pregnant, and tried unsuccessfully to abort the fetus. The flogging was postponed until after the delivery.^[219]

Saudi women's rights activist Loujain al-Hathloul was arrested in May 2018

New technology

Gender segregation has produced great enthusiasm for innovative communications technology, especially when it is anonymous. Saudis were early adopters of Bluetoothtechnology, as men and women use it to communicate secretly.

Saudi women use online social networking as a way to share ideas they cannot share publicly. As one woman put it:

In Saudi Arabia, we live more of a virtual life than a real life. I know people who are involved in on-line romances with people they have never met in real life ... And many of us use Facebook for other things, like talking about human rights and women's rights. We can protest on Facebook about the jailing of a blogger which is something we couldn't do on the streets.

Some conservative clerics called for Facebook to be banned because it causes gender mingling. One cleric called it a "door to lust" and cause of "social strife."

An internet radio station that is promoting women's rights from abroad, announced via Twitter that it would broadcast on a weekly basis.

Foreign views

Three Muslim women in 19th-century dresses. The middle woman is from Mecca, the other two are Syrian.

Western critics often compare the situation of Saudi women to a system of apartheid, analogous to South Africa's treatment of non-whites during South Africa's apartheid era. As evidence, they cite restrictions on travel, fields of study, choice of profession, access to the courts, and political speech. The New York Times writes, "Saudi women are denied many of the same rights that 'Blacks' and 'Coloreds' were denied in apartheid South Africa and yet the kingdom still belongs to the very same international community that kicked Pretoria out of its club."

Some commentators have argued that Saudi gender policies constitute a crime against humanity, and warrant intervention from the international community. They criticize the U.S. government for publicizing oppression by enemies such as the Taliban, even though its allies, like Saudi Arabia, have similar policies. Mary Kaldor views gender apartheid in Saudi Arabia as similar to that enforced by the Taliban in Afghanistan. In contrast, political commentator Daniel Pipes, sees Saudi gender apartheid as tempered by other practices, such as allowing women to attend school and work.

Critics also blame Western corporations that cooperate in enforcing segregation. American chains such as Starbucks and Pizza Hut maintain separate eating areas; the men's areas are typically high-quality, whereas the women's are rundown or lack seats. In a 2001 column, Washington Post editor Colbert I. King commented:

As with Saudi Arabia, white-ruled South Africa viewed external criticism as a violation of its sovereignty and interference with its internal affairs. And U.S. corporations in South Africa, as with their Saudi Arabian counterparts, pleaded that they had no choice but to defer to the local "culture."

King wonders why there is nothing like the Sullivan Principles for gender-based discrimination. Journalist Anne Applebaum argues that gender apartheid in Saudi Arabia gets a free pass from American feminists. She questions why American civil rights leaders like Jesse Jackson were active in protesting South Africa's racial apartheid, but American feminists rarely venture beyond reproductive rights when discussing international politics: “Until this changes, it will be hard to mount a campaign, in the manner of the anti-apartheid movement, to enforce sanctions or codes of conduct for people doing business there.”

Cultural relativism is the root of activist inaction, according to feminists such as Azar Majedi, Pamela Bone, and Maryam Namazie. They argue that political Islam is misogynist, and the desire of Western liberals to tolerate Islam blinds them to women's rights violations. Majedi and Namazie, both born in Iran, consider cultural relativism racist: “To put it bluntly, according to this concept, because of my birthplace, I should enjoy fewer rights relative to a woman born in Sweden, England, or France.” Pamela Bone argues feminist apathy is supported by “the dreary cultural relativism that pervades the thinking of so many of those once described as on the Left. We are no better than they are. We should not impose our values on them. We can criticise only our own. The problem with this mindset is that, with all its faults, Western culture is clearly, objectively, better.” Bone argues that cultural relativism comes from a fear that criticizing Islam will be considered racist.

Ann Elizabeth Mayer, an American specialist in Islamic law, sees gender apartheid as enshrined in the Saudi Basic Law:

Article 9. The family is the kernel of Saudi society, and its members shall be brought up on the basis of the Islamic faith, and loyalty and obedience to Allah, His Messenger, and to guardians; respect for and implementation of the law, and love of and pride in the homeland and its glorious history as the Islamic faith stipulates.
Article 10. The state will aspire to strengthen family ties, maintain its Arab and Islamic values and care for all its members, and to provide the right conditions for the growth of their resources and capabilities.

Mayer argues that Articles 9 and 10 deny women "any opportunity to participate in public law or government."^[256]

In January 2019, British parliamentarians and lawmakers sought access to eight detained female activists in Saudi Arabia. The request came following a report by the Human Rights Watch claiming that the women were subjected to abuse, electric shocks, beatings, flogging, and rape threats.^[257] Crispin Blunt, UK Conservative Member of Parliament, said:

"There are credible concerns that the conditions in which the Saudi women activists are being detained may have fallen significantly short of both international and Saudi Arabia's own standards. We make this request to the Saudi authorities so that we can assess for ourselves the conditions in which the Saudi women activists have been and are being detained today. No person should be subjected to the type of treatment that has allegedly been inflicted upon these women activists while in detention. The implications of activists being detained and tortured for exercising their freedom of speech and conducting peaceful campaigns is concerning for all individuals seeking to exercise their human rights in Saudi Arabia."^[258]

Women in the Arab world

New technology

Gender segregation has produced great enthusiasm for innovative communications technology, especially when it is anonymous. Saudis were early adopters of Bluetoothtechnology, as men and women use it to communicate secretly.

Saudi women use online social networking as a way to share ideas they cannot share publicly. As one woman put it:

In Saudi Arabia, we live more of a virtual life than a real life. I know people who are involved in on-line romances with people they have never met in real life ... And many of us use Facebook for other things, like talking about human rights and women's rights. We can protest on Facebook about the jailing of a blogger which is something we couldn't do on the streets.

Some conservative clerics called for Facebook to be banned because it causes gender mingling. One cleric called it a "door to lust" and cause of "social strife."

An internet radio station that is promoting women's rights from abroad, announced via Twitter that it would broadcast on a weekly basis.

Foreign views

Three Muslim women in 19th-century dresses. The middle woman is from Mecca, the other two are Syrian.

Western critics often compare the situation of Saudi women to a system of apartheid, analogous to South Africa's treatment of non-whites during South Africa's apartheid era. As evidence, they cite restrictions on travel, fields of study, choice of profession, access to the courts, and political speech. The New York Times writes, "Saudi women are denied many of the same rights that 'Blacks' and 'Coloreds' were denied in apartheid South Africa and yet the kingdom still belongs to the very same international community that kicked Pretoria out of its club."

Women in Asia

   (Courtesy of Wikipedia, Encyclopedia)

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"Asian women" redirects here. For the journal, see Asian Women (journal).

The evolution and history of women in Asia coincide with the evolution and history of Asian continent itself. They also correspond with the cultures that developed within the region. Asian women can be categorically grouped as women from the Asian subregions of Central Asia, East Asia, North Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia, and Western Asia (aka The Middle East).

By country, women of Asia come from sovereign states such those women from Armenia, Iraq, Israel, Japan, Vietnam, and Yemen.

Other Asian women come from states with limited international recognition such as women from Abkhazia, Nagorno-Karabakh, Northern Cyprus, Palestine, South Ossetia, and Taiwan.

Other women from Asia come from dependent territories such as women from the British Indian Ocean Territory, Christmas Island, the Cocos (Keeling) Islands, Hong Kong, and Macau.

Traditional roles

Due to the patriarchal nature of traditional Armenian culture and society women in Armenia are often expected to be virtuous and submissive, to safeguard their virginity until marriage, and assume primarily domestic tasks.

Traditional social norms and lagging economic development in Azerbaijan's rural regions continue to restrict women’s roles in society and the economy, and there were reports that women had difficulty exercising their legal rights due to gender discrimination.

Women in Cambodia, sometimes referred to as Khmer women, are supposed to be modest, soft-spoken, "light" walkers, well-mannered, industrious, belong to the household, act as the family's caregivers and caretakers and financial comptrollers perform as the "preserver of the home", maintain their virginity until marriage, become faithful wives, and act as advisors and servants to their husbands.The "light" walking and refinement of Cambodian women is further described as being "quiet in […] movements that one cannot hear the sound of their silk skirt rustling".

Throughout the history of Persia, Persian women (presently known as women in Iran), like Persian men, used make-up, wore jewellery and coloured their body parts. Moreover, their garments were both elaborate and colorful. Rather than being marked by gender, clothing styles were distinguished by class and status. Women in modern Iran (post 1935 "Persia") are of various mixes and appearances, both in fashion and social norm. Traditionally however, the "Persian woman" had a pre-defined appearance set by social norms that were the standard for all women in society.

Women in Kyrgyzstan traditionally had assigned roles, although only the religious elite sequestered women as was done in other Muslimsocieties.

Historically, women in Burma (Myanmar) have had a unique social status in Burmese society. According to the research made by Daw Mya Sein, Burmese women "for centuries – even before recorded history" owned a "high measure of independence" and had retained their "legal and economic rights" despite the influences of Buddhism and Hinduism. Burma once had a matriarchal system that includes the exclusive right to inherit oil wells and the right to inherit the position as village head. Burmese women were also appointed to high offices by Burmese kings, can become chieftainesses and queens.

Palestinian women were not expected to secure income for the family, but women were expected to adapt to the customary roles of women in Palestinian society wherein females were traditionally molded as inferior to men.

The role of women in Turkmenistan has never conformed to Western stereotypes about Muslim women. Although a division of labor exists and women usually are not visible actors in political affairs outside the home, Turkmen women have never worn a veil similar to that of the women of some of its neighboring countries. As Turkmenistan is a tribal nation, customs regarding women can vary within the country: for example, women in the eastern part of the country are permitted to drink some alcohol whereas women who live in the central portion of the country, particularly those of the Tekke tribe, are not permitted to imbibe alcohol. Most women possess a host of highly specialized skills and crafts, especially those connected with the household and its maintenance.

Promoting gender equality[

Two young women in Kazakhstan

Women in Azerbaijan nominally enjoy the same legal rights as men; however, societal discrimination is a problem. Universal suffrage was introduced in Azerbaijan in 1918 by the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic, thus making Azerbaijan the first Muslim country ever to enfranchise women. Most Bahraini women are also well represented in all of the major professions, women’s societies, and women’s organizations. Apart from having the right to vote, around one-quarter of the women of Bahrain are able to hold jobs outside the confines of the household.

Available data on health, nutrition, education, and economic performance indicated that in the 2014 women participation in the workforce was 57%. Bangladesh has a gender development index of .917.

As financial controllers, the women of Cambodia can be identified as having real household authority at the familial level. In recent years, women have become more active in the traditionally male-dominated spheres of work and politics in Cambodia.

October 1, 1949 marks the formal establishment of the People's Republic of China. Since 1949, the government of the People's Republic of China has actively promoted the cultural, social, economic and political roles of women in order to improve women's liberation. The new government of the People's Republic made a commitment to achieve equality between women and men. While advancing towards equality among men and women, the efforts met resistance in a traditionally Confucian society of male superiority.

Although equality among men and women has been a long-term goal of the People's Republic of China, the dramatic reformations that followed the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976) have inconsistently affected women's empowerment and status in China. Studies shows that Chinese women experienced rapid progress in terms of gender equality during the Cultural Revolution. When the People's Republic of China was established, employed women accounted for only 7 percent of the workforce; whereas in 1992 women's participation in the workforce had increased to account for 38 percent. Women's representation in higher educational institutions has also increased since the establishment of the People's Republic of China. Under the traditional Chinese patriarchy structure, the society was male-dominated, and women in Hong Kong had a relatively subordinate familial role. However, there is a cultural change in Hong Kong during the British colonial period with an emergence of Western culture (i.e. "Westernization"). A mix of traditional Chinese culture and Western values creates a unique culture of Hong Kong. Along with the rapid economic and social development of Hong Kong since the end of the Second World War, a significant improvement in the role of men has been witnessed, while female dominance society structure is still taking in place. Hence, women studies in Hong Kong are slightly differ from China's. Women in Hong Kong are generally more independent, monetarily autonomous, assertive, and career-focused; which makes them seem to be more prominent when comparing with women in some other Southeast Asian countries. 

With the increase number of women in professional and managerial positions in recent decades, the terms of "female strong person" or "superwomen" are being used to describe women in Hong Kong. Candice Chio Ngan Ieng, president of the Macau Women's General Association(AGMM), describes in 2010 that women are currently defining themselves as capable and irreplaceable powers to Macau's modern-day civilization. This change is happening despite the slowness in the Macanese people's absorption of the ideological concept of gender equality.

The status of women in India has been subject to many great changes over the past few millennia. From equal status with men in ancient times through the low points of the medieval period, to the promotion of equal rights by many reformers, the history of women in India has been eventful.

The roles of Indonesian women today are being affected by many factors, including increased modernization, globalization, improved education and advances in technology (in particular communications technology). Many women in Indonesia choose to reside in cities instead of staying in townships to perform agricultural work because of personal, professional, and family-related necessities, and economic requirements. These women are moving away from the traditional dictates of Indonesian culture, wherein women act simply and solely as wives and mothers. At present, the women of Indonesia are also venturing actively into the realm of national development, and working as active members of organizations that focus and act on women's issues and concerns.

The Iranian women's movement is based on the Iranian women's social movement for women's rights. This movement first emerged some time after the Iranian Constitutional Revolution in 1910, the year in which the first Women Journal was published by women. The movement lasted until 1933 in which the last women’s association was dissolved by the Reza Shah Pahlavi’s government. It heightened again after the Iranian Revolution (1979). Between 1962 and 1978, the Iranian women's movement gained tremendous victories: women won the right to vote in 1963 as part of Mohammad Reza Shah's White Revolution, and were allowed to stand for public office, and in 1975 the Family Protection Law provided new rights for women, including expanded divorce and custody rights and reduced polygamy. Following the 1979 Revolution, several laws based on gender discrimination were established such as the introduction of mandatory veiling and public dress code of females. Women's rights since the Islamic Revolution has varied. About 9% of the Iranian parliament members are women, while the global average is 13%. Following the Revolution, women were allowed to join the police and military forces.

The women's rights movement in Iran continues to attempt influencing reforms, particularly with the One Million Signatures Campaign to End Discrimination Against Women.

Women in the country went through a difficult period in the 1990s, when Kazakhstan's economy, being in a period of transition, experienced a strong decline and destabilization: by 1995 real GDP dropped to 61,4% of its 1990 level, resulting also in a brain drain. Nevertheless, the 1990s also had some positives for women, such as the accession to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women in 1998.

Women in Kuwait are considered to be among the most emancipated women in the Gulf region. Women in Kuwait can travel, drive, and work without their fathers' or husbands' consent and they even hold senior government positions.Women in Kuwait are able to work freely and can achieve positions of power and influence.

Because of the demands of the nomadic economy, women in Kyrgyzstan worked as virtual equals with men, having responsibility for chores such as milking as well as child-rearing and the preparation and storage of food. In the ordinary family, women enjoyed approximately equal status with their husbands, within their traditional roles.

Laotian women have long been active participants in their nation's society, involved in politics, driving social transformation and development, becoming active in the world of business and serving as nurses and food producers for the military. Due to modernization and rural uprooting, Lao women have begun to embrace lifestyles that are foreign to traditional Laotian ideals.

Due to the large number of officially recognized religions in Lebanon, Lebanese family matters are governed by at least 15  personal statute codes. Lebanese women have legal protection that varies depending on their religion. Marriageable age can be as young as 12.5, polygamy is allowed if the male of the family is Muslim, parental authority belongs to the patriarch of the house and legal guardian of all children, and female children receive less inheritance than a male child would.Children born to a Lebanese woman and a man from another country will not have their children granted Lebanese nationality.

Malaysian women sit at a restaurant, 2009.

Women in Malaysia receives support from the Malaysian government concerning their rights to advance, to make decisions, to health, education and social welfare, and to the removal of legal obstacles. The Malaysian government has ensured these factors through the establishment of Ministry of National Unity and Social Development in 1997 (formerly known in 1993 as Women's Affairs Secretariat or HAWA). This was followed by the formation of the Women's Affairs Ministry in 2001 to recognize the roles and contributions of Malaysian women. Around 47% of Malaysian women are in the workforce.

Women now pursue careers and professional training in Oman, slowly moving from their previous household confinement to the public sphere. In Oman, 17 October is celebrated every year as the Omani Women's Day with various pro-female events.

The Pakistani women of today enjoy a better status than most Muslim women. However, on an average, the women's situation vis-à-vis men is one of systemic gender subordination, although there have been attempts by the government and enlightened groups to elevate the status of women in Pakistani society. Now due to lots of awareness among people the educational opportunities for the Pakistani women increased in the previous years. According to a Human Development Report released by the United Nations, Pakistan has better gender equality than neighbouring India. However, in 2012, the World Economic Forum ranked Chad, Pakistan and Yemen as the worst in their Global Gender Gap Report.

Although they generally define themselves in the milieu of a masculine dominated post-colonial Asian Catholic society, Filipino women live in a culture that is focused on the community, with the family as the main unit of society. It is in this framework of Philippine hierarchical structure, class differences, religious justifications, and living in a globally developing nation that Filipino women struggle for respect. Compared to other parts of Southeast Asia, women in Philippine society have always enjoyed a greater share of legal equality.

All women, regardless of age, are required to have a male guardian in Saudi Arabia. Saudi Arabia is the only country in the world that prohibits women from driving. The World Economic Forum 2009 Global Gender Gap Report ranked Saudi Arabia 130th out of 134 countries for gender parity. It was the only country to score a zero in the category of political empowerment. The report also noted that Saudi Arabia is one of the few Middle Eastern countries to improve from 2008, with small gains in economic opportunity

21% of Saudi women are in the workforce and make up 16.5% of the overall workforce.

There is evidence that some women in Saudi Arabia do not want change. Even many advocates of reform reject Western critics, for "failing to understand the uniqueness of Saudi society." Journalist Maha Akeel is a frequent critic of her country's patriarchal customs. Nonetheless, she agrees that Westerners criticize what they do not understand. She has said: "Look, we are not asking for ... women's rights according to Western values or lifestyles ... We want things according to what Islam says. Look at our history, our role models."

Women in Singapore, particularly those who have joined Singapore's workforce, are faced with balancing their traditional and modern-day roles in Singaporean society and economy. According to the book The Three Paradoxes: Working Women in Singapore written by Jean Lee S.K., Kathleen Campbell, and Audrey Chia, there are "three paradoxes" confronting and challenging the career women of Singapore. Firstly, Singapore's society expects women to become creative and prolific corporate workers who are also expected to play the role of traditional women in the household, particularly as wife and mother. Secondly, Singaporean women are confronted by the "conflict between work and family" resulting from their becoming members of the working population. Thirdly, Singapore's female managers are still fewer in number despite of their rising educational level and attainments when compared to male managers.

Syria Comment described that Syrian women have been able to acquire several rights that have not been granted to their counterparts in other Arab nations. Such rights include the custody of children aged 15 years old or younger; and the right to give their nationality to their offspring whose father is not a national of Syria.^[69] A common attire of women, particularly in Damascus, are Western clothing that includes long skirts, pants, jeans, high-heeled shoes, in addition to the sporting of the hijab and the monteau (a type of coat), sometimes accented by a “coordinating purse”.

The role of women in the United Arab Emirates has advanced greatly in recent years, making the UAE a leader in women's rights in the Arab world. Though there were few opportunities for women outside the home before 1960, the discovery of oil led to advancement in women's position. The UAE constitution guarantees equality between men and women in areas including legal status, claiming of titles, and access to education. The General Women's Union (GWU), established by HH Sheikha Fatima bint Mubarak wife of then President Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, remains a strong component of the State's and participating organizations' various initiatives. In the 2007/2008 United Nations Development Programme report, the UAE ranked 29th among 177 countries in the Gender Empowerment Measures, the best rating received in the Arab World. UNDP’s Millennium Development Goal No. 3, to “Promote Gender Equality and Empower Women” has reached its targeted levels of female participation in primary education and continues to increase.^]

Women in Yemen have historically had much less power in society than men. Although the government of Yemen has made efforts that will improve the rights of women in Yemen (including the formation of a Women's Development Strategy and a Women Health Development Strategy), many cultural and religious norms, along with poor enforcement of this legislation from the Yemeni government, have prevented Yemeni women from having equal rights to men.

Today, Yemeni women do not hold many economic, social or cultural rights. Even more striking is the reality that while suffrage was gained in 1967 and constitutional and legal protection was extended to women during the first years of Yemen unity between 1990–1994, they continue to struggle “in exercising their full political and civil rights”. History shows that women have played major roles in Yemeni society. Some women of pre-Islamic and early Islamic Yemen held elite status in society. The Queen of Sheba, for example, “is a source of pride for the Yemeni nation”. In addition, Queen Arwa has been noted for her attention to infrastructure, which added to a documented time of prosperity under her rule. Modern day women of Yemen, however, are subject to a society that reflects largely agrarian, tribal, and patriarchal traditions. This, combined with illiteracy and economic issues has led women to continuously be deprived of their rights as citizens of Yemen.

The roles of women in Thailand's national development has not yet been fully established. Factors that affect women's participation in the socio-economic field include "inadequate gender awareness in the policy and planning process" and social stereotyping.

During the Soviet period, women in Turkmenistan assumed responsibility for the observance of some Muslim rites to protect their husbands' careers Many women entered the work force out of economic necessity, a factor that disrupted some traditional family practices and increased the incidence of divorce. At the same time, educated urban women entered professional services and careers.^[12] The social and legal situation of women in Uzbekistan has been influenced by local traditions, religion, the Soviet rule, and changing social norms since independence.

Women in Vietnam played a significant role in defending Vietnam during the Vietnam War from 1945 to 1975. They took roles such as village patrol guards, intelligence agents, propagandists, and military recruiters. By becoming "active participants" in the struggle to liberate their country from foreign occupation, Vietnamese women were able to free themselves from "centuries of Confucian influence that had made them second-class citizens". Historically, this character and spirit of Vietnamese women were first exemplified by the conduct of the Trung sisters, the “first historical figures” in the history of Vietnam who revolted against Chinese control. This trait is also epitomized in the old Vietnamese adage: "When war comes, even women have to fight", and its variation: "When the enemy is at the gate, the woman goes out fighting".

Violence and sexual harassment against women

Violence against women in Afghanistan is high, although the situation is improving slowly as the country progresses with the help of the international community.^[89]

Bride kidnapping occurs in Azerbaijan.^[90] In the Azeri kidnap custom, a young woman is taken to the home of the abductor's parents through either deceit or force. Regardless of whether rape occurs or not, the woman is generally regarded as impure by her relatives, and is therefore forced to marry her abductor.^[91]

Women in India continue to face atrocities such as rape, acid throwing, dowry killings while young girls are forced into prostitution; as of late rape has seen a sharp increase following several high-profile cases of young girls brutally raped in public areas.^[92][93][94] According to a global poll conducted by Thomson Reuters, India is the "fourth most dangerous country" in the world for women,^[95][96] and the worst country for women among the G20 countries.^[97]

Societal discrimination and domestic violence against women has been identified as a significant problem, particularly in the Israeli Bedouin society.^[98]

In the 21st century, the issue of violence against women in Kazakhstan has come to public attention, resulting in the Law on the Prevention of Domestic Violence of 2009.^[99]However, as in other parts of Central Asia, bride kidnapping remains a problem.^[100] [101]

Local and regional NGOs have helped to increase awareness of violence against women in Lebanon.^[102][103] Government policies regarding this are poor however, and attempts to improve this area have been met with resistance.^[104] Lebanon's laws do not recognize the concept of spousal rape,^[45] and attempt to add this to law have been attacked by Lebanese clerics.^[105]

Pakistani women face atrocities like rape, acid throwing, honour killings, forced marriages, forced prostitution and the buying and selling of women.^[106] The past few years have been witness to a steep increase in such crimes.^[106]

Notable women in Asia

Notable women from Asia include Qiu Jin (China), Trieu Thi Trinh (Vietnam), Miriam Defensor-Santiago (the Philippines), Sirimavo Bandaranaike (Sri Lanka) and Mandukhai Khatun(Mongolia).^[116]

Kyrgyz oral literature includes the story of Janyl-myrza, a young woman who led her tribe to liberation from the enemy when no man in the tribe could do so.^[9] In the nineteenth century, the wife of Khan Almyn-bek led a group of Kyrgyz tribes at the time of the Russian conquest of Quqon.^[9]

Mother Teresa: Sample & Symbole Western Headscarf

(Courtesy of  Wikipedia, Encyclopedia)

Saint Teresa of Calcutta Mother Teresa MC
Consecrated religious, nun
Born	Anjezë Gonxhe Bojaxhiu 26 August 1910 Üsküp, Kosovo Vilayet, Ottoman Empire (present-day Skopje, North Macedonia)
Died	5 September 1997 (aged 87) Calcutta, West Bengal, India(present-day Kolkata)
Venerated in	Roman Catholic Church
Beatified	19 October 2003, Saint Peter's Square, Vatican City by Pope John Paul II
Canonized	4 September 2016, Saint Peter's Square, Vatican City by Pope Francis
Major shrine	Mother House of the Missionaries of Charity, Kolkata, West Bengal, India
Feast	5 September[1]
Attributes	·         Nun's habit ·         Rosary
Patronage	·         World Youth Day ·         Missionaries of Charity ·         Archdiocese of Calcutta (co-patron) [2][3]
Mother Teresa
Title		Superior general
Personal
Religion		Christianity
Nationality		Ottoman subject (1910–1912) Serbian subject (1912–1915) Bulgarian subject (1915–1918) Yugoslavian subject (1918–1943) Yugoslavian citizen (1943–1948) Indian subject (1948–1950) Indian citizen[4] (1950–1997) Albanian citizen[5] (1991–1997) United States, honorary citizenship(awarded 1996)
Denomination		Roman Catholicism
Signature
Institute		Sisters of Loreto (1928–1948) Missionaries of Charity (1950–1997)
Senior posting
Period in office		1950–1997
Successor		Sr. Nirmala Joshi, MC

Mary Teresa Bojaxhiu (born Anjezë Gonxhe Bojaxhiu, Albanian: [aˈɲɛzə ˈɡɔndʒɛ bɔjaˈdʒiu]; 26 August 1910 – 5 September 1997), commonly known as Mother Teresa and honoured in the Roman Catholic Church as Saint Teresa of Calcutta, was an Albanian-Indian^[4] Roman Catholic nun and missionary. She was born in Skopje (now the capital of North Macedonia), then part of the Kosovo Vilayet of the *Ottoman Empire. After living in Skopje for eighteen years, she moved to Ireland and then to India, where she lived for most of her life.

In 1950, Teresa founded the Missionaries of Charity, a Roman Catholic religious congregation that had over 4,500 nuns and was active in 133 countries in 2012. The congregation manages homes for people who are dying of HIV/AIDS, leprosy and tuberculosis. It also runs soup kitchens, dispensaries, mobile clinics, children's and family counselling programmes, as well as orphanages and schools. Members take vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience, and also profess a fourth vow—to give "wholehearted free service to the poorest of the poor."

Teresa received a number of honours, including the 1962 Ramon Magsaysay Peace Prize and 1979 Nobel Peace Prize. She was canonised (recognised by the church as a saint) on 4 September 2016, and the anniversary of her death (5 September) is her feast day.

A controversial figure during her life and after her death, Teresa was admired by many for her charitable work. She was praised and criticised for her opposition to abortion, and criticised for poor conditions in her houses for the dying. Her authorised biography was written by Navin Chawla and published in 1992, and she has been the subject of films and other books. On September 6, 2017, Teresa and St. Francis Xavier were named co-patrons of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Calcutta.

Biography

Early life

Memorial House of Mother Teresain her native Skopje

Teresa was born Anjezë Gonxhe (or Gonxha) Bojaxhiu (*Albanian: [aˈɲɛzə ˈɡɔndʒɛ bɔjaˈdʒiu]; Anjezë is a cognate of "Agnes"; Gonxhe means "rosebud" or "little flower" in Albanian) on 26 August 1910 into a Kosovar Albanian family in Skopje (now the capital of North Macedonia), Ottoman Empire. She was baptized in Skopje, the day after her birth She later considered 27 August, the day she was baptised, her "true birthday".

She was the youngest child of Nikollë and Dranafile Bojaxhiu (Bernai). Her father, who was involved in Albanian-community politics in Ottoman Macedonia, died in 1919 when she was eight years old. He may have been from Prizren, Kosovo, and her mother may have been from a village near Gjakova.

According to a biography by Joan Graff Clucas, Teresa was in her early years when she was fascinated by stories of the lives of missionaries and their service in Bengal; by age 12, she was convinced that she should commit herself to religious life. Her resolve strengthened on 15 August 1928 as she prayed at the shrine of the Black Madonna of Vitina-Letnice, where she often went on pilgrimages.

Teresa left home in 1928 at age 18 to join the Sisters of Loreto at Loreto Abbey in Rathfarnham, Ireland, to learn English with the view of becoming a missionary; English was the language of instruction of the Sisters of Loreto in India. She never saw her mother or her sister again. Her family lived in Skopje until 1934, when they moved to Tirana.

She arrived in India in 1929 and began her novitiate in Darjeeling, in the lower Himalayas, where she learned Bengali and taught at St. Teresa's School near her convent. Teresa took her first religious vows on 24 May 1931. She chose to be named after Thérèse de Lisieux, the patron saint of missionaries; because a nun in the convent had already chosen that name, Agnes opted for its Spanish spelling (Teresa).

Teresa took her solemn vows on 14 May 1937 while she was a teacher at the Loreto convent school in Entally, eastern Calcutta. She served there for nearly twenty years and was appointed its headmistress in 1944. Although Teresa enjoyed teaching at the school, she was increasingly disturbed by the poverty surrounding her in Calcutta. The Bengal famine of 1943 brought misery and death to the city, and the August 1946 Direct Action Day began a period of Muslim-Hindu violence.

Missionaries of Charity

Missionaries of Charity motherhouse in Kolkata

On 10 September 1946, Teresa experienced what she later described as "the call within the call" when she travelled by train to the Loreto convent in Darjeeling from Calcutta for her annual retreat. "I was to leave the convent and help the poor while living among them. It was an order. To fail would have been to break the faith." Joseph Langford later wrote, "Though no one knew it at the time, Sister Teresa had just become Mother Teresa".

She began missionary work with the poor in 1948, replacing her traditional Loreto habit with a simple, white cotton sari with a blue border. Teresa adopted Indian citizenship, spent several months in Patna to receive basic medical training at Holy Family Hospital and ventured into the slums. She founded a school in Motijhil, Kolkata, before she began tending to the poor and hungry. At the beginning of 1949 Teresa was joined in her effort by a group of young women, and she laid the foundation for a new religious community helping the "poorest among the poor".

Her efforts quickly caught the attention of Indian officials, including the prime minister. Teresa wrote in her diary that her first year was fraught with difficulty. With no income, she begged for food and supplies and experienced doubt, loneliness and the temptation to return to the comfort of convent life during these early months:

Our Lord wants me to be a free nun covered with the poverty of the cross. Today, I learned a good lesson. The poverty of the poor must be so hard for them. While looking for a home I walked and walked till my arms and legs ached. I thought how much they must ache in body and soul, looking for a home, food and health. Then, the comfort of Loreto [her former congregation] came to tempt me. "You have only to say the word and all that will be yours again", the Tempter kept on saying ... Of free choice, my God, and out of love for you, I desire to remain and do whatever be your Holy will in my regard. I did not let a single tear come.

Missionaries of Charity in traditional saris

On 7 October 1950, Teresa received Vatican permission for the diocesan congregation, which would become the Missionaries of Charity.^[43] In her words, it would care for "the hungry, the naked, the homeless, the crippled, the blind, the lepers, all those people who feel unwanted, unloved, uncared for throughout society, people that have become a burden to the society and are shunned by everyone". By 1997 the 13-member Calcutta congregation had grown to more than 4,000 sisters who managed orphanages, AIDS hospices and charity centres worldwide, caring for refugees, the blind, disabled, aged, alcoholics, the poor and homeless and victims of floods, epidemics and famine.

Nirmal Hriday, Mother Teresa's Calcutta hospice, in 2007

She opened a hospice for those with leprosy, calling it Shanti Nagar (City of Peace). The Missionaries of Charity established leprosy-outreach clinics throughout Calcutta, providing medication, dressings and food. The Missionaries of Charity took in an increasing number of homeless children; in 1955 Teresa opened Nirmala Shishu Bhavan, the Children's Home of the Immaculate Heart, as a haven for orphans and homeless youth.

The congregation began to attract recruits and donations, and by the 1960s it had opened hospices, orphanages and leper housesthroughout India. Teresa then expanded the congregation abroad, opening a house in Venezuela in 1965 with five sisters.^[51] Houses followed in Italy (Rome), Tanzania and Austria in 1968, and during the 1970s the congregation opened houses and foundations in the United States and dozens of countries in Asia, Africa and Europe.

The Missionaries of Charity Brothers was founded in 1963, and a contemplative branch of the Sisters followed in 1976. Lay Catholics and non-Catholics were enrolled in the Co-Workers of Mother Teresa, the Sick and Suffering Co-Workers, and the Lay Missionaries of Charity. Responding to requests by many priests, in 1981 Mother Teresa founded the Corpus Christi Movement for Priests and (with priest Joseph Langford) the Missionaries of Charity Fathers in 1984 to combine the vocational aims of the Missionaries of Charity with the resources of the priesthood. By 2007 the Missionaries of Charity numbered about 450 brothers and 5,000 sisters worldwide, operating 600 missions, schools and shelters in 120 countries.

Nun

A nun is a member of a religious community of women, typically living under vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience in the enclosure of a monastery.^[1] Communities of nuns exist in numerous religious traditions, including Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Jainism, and Taoism.

In the Buddhist tradition, female monastics are known as Bhikkhuni, and take several additional vows compared to male monastics (bhikkhus). Nuns are most common in Mahayana Buddhism, but have more recently become more prevalent in other traditions.

Within Christianity, women religious, known as nuns or religious sisters, are found in Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Anglican, and Lutheran traditions among others. Though the terms are often used interchangeably, nuns historically take solemn vows and live a life of prayer and contemplation in a monastery or convent, while sisters take simple vows^[2] and live an active vocation of prayer and charitable works in areas such as education and healthcare. Examples include the monastic Order of Saint Clare founded in 1212 in the Franciscan tradition, or the Missionaries of Charity founded in 1950 by Mother Teresa.

o    6.1Tallit katan

o    6.2Tallit gadol

·         7Women

·         8References

·         9External links

Biblical commandment

people wore a garment of some type to cover themselves and instructs the Children of Israel to attach fringes (ציצית tzitzit) to the corners of these (Numbers 15:38), repeating the commandment in terms that they should "make thee twisted cords upon the four corners of thy covering, wherewith thou coverest thyself" (Deuteronomy 22:12). These passages do not specify tying particular types or numbers of knots in the fringes. The exact customs regarding the tying of the tzitzit and the format of the tallit are of post-biblical, rabbinic origin and, though the Talmud discusses these matters, slightly different traditions have developed in different communities.^[6] However the Bible is specific as to the purpose of these tzitzit, stating that "it shall be unto you for a fringe, that ye may look upon it, and remember all the commandments of the LORD, and do them; and that ye go not about after your own heart and your own eyes, after which ye use to go astray; that ye may remember and do all My commandments, and be holy unto your God".^[7]

Encyclopaedia Judaica describes the prayer shawl as "a rectangular mantle that looked like a blanket and was worn by men in ancient times". Also, it "is usually white and made either of wool, cotton, or silk".^[8]

Traditionally the tallit is made of wool or linen, based on an understanding that reference to a "garment" in the bible in connection with a mitzvah refers specifically to wool and linen garments.^[9] Though other materials are sometimes used, the debate has not reached a conclusion, and many, especially among the orthodox, prefer wool which is accepted by all authorities.^[10] There is also debate about mixed wool and linen tallit, since the bible forbids klayim (shatnez) - "intertying" wool and linen together, with the two exceptions being garments of kohanim and tzitzit. Concerning tzitzit, chazal (the sages) permit using wool and linen strings in tandem only when genuine tekhelet(see below) is available, whereas kabbalist sources take it a step further by encouraging its practice.^[11][12]

According to the biblical commandment,^[13] a blue thread (פתיל תכלת, pəthiyl (thread) tək·ā'·leth (blue)) is included in the tzitzit.^[14] However, for many centuries since the exile of the Jewish people from the Land of Israel, tzitzit have been worn without a techelet fringe, though in the last hundred years there has been something of a comeback.^[15][16]

Pronunciation

In Modern Hebrew the word is pronounced [taˈlit], with the stress on the final syllable. In Yiddish it is [ˈtaləs], with the stress on the first syllable. The plural of tallit in Hebrew is tallitot, pronounced [taliˈtot]. The Yiddish plural is taleisim, pronounced [taˈlejsɪm].

Etymology

Tallit is an Aramaic word from the root T-L-L טלל meaning cover.^[17] Tallit literally means cloak or sheet but in Talmudic times already referred to the Jewish prayer shawl.

Idiom

In modern Hebrew idiom, the sarcastic expression, "a completely blue tallit" (טלית שכולה תכלת) is widely used to refer to something that is ostensibly, but not really, absolutely pure, immaculate and virtuous. (An English parallel might be calling someone "Mr. Perfect.") The expression stems from rabbinic lore about the biblical figure Korah who led a revolt against the leadership of Moses and Aaron. Koraḥ was said to have asked Moses a number of vexatious, mocking questions, one of which was, "Does a tallit made entirely of blue yarn require tzitzit?" To Moses' affirmative answer, Koraḥ objected that an ordinary (undyed) tallit is rendered 'kosher' (meaning, in this context, ritually fit to be worn) by attaching to its corners the tzitzit tassels, whose key feature was the single thread of blue (פתיל תכלת) contained in each tassel.^[18] If so, what addition of holiness^[19] could the tzitzit contribute to a tallit which was made entirely of the same sky-blue yarn?

The notion implicit in questions like this attributed by the rabbis to Koraḥ is the same as that expressed in Koraḥ's challenge to Moses and Aaron (Numbers 16:3), "The entire congregation is holy, and God is in their midst, so why do you exalt yourselves above God's congregation?" Koraḥ ostensibly subscribed to the laws that were the subject of his questions to Moses, but was really using them to mock and discredit Moses. Therefore, Koraḥ's question about a tallit made entirely of blue yarn, which is ostensibly "more kosher than tzitzit" but is really not, since it still requires tzitzit, became, in Hebrew idiom, an epithet used sarcastically against hypocritical displays of false piety.

The phrase "more kosher than tzitzit" is a Yiddish metaphoric expression (כשר'ער ווי ציצית) with similar connotations but is not necessarily used in a sarcastic sense. It can refer, in the superlative, to something that is really so perfect and flawless as to be beyond all reproach or criticism.

Customs

In some Jewish communities a tallit gadol is given as a gift by a father to a son, a father-in-law to a son-in-law, or a teacher to a student. It might be purchased to mark a special occasion, such as a wedding or a bar mitzvah. Many parents purchase a tallit gadol for their sons at the age of 13, together with tefillin, though among the orthodox a male child will have been wearing a tallit katan from pre-school age. In the non-Orthodox Reform and Conservative movements in addition to the men, some women nowadays also wear a tallit gadol. While many worshipers bring their own tallit gadol to synagogue, there is usually a rack of them for the use of visitors and guests.

At Jewish wedding ceremonies, a tallit gadol is often used as a chuppah or wedding canopy. Similarly, a tallit gadol is traditionally spread out as a canopy over the children during the Torah-reading ceremony during the holiday of Simchat Torah, or in any procession with Torah scrolls, such as when parading a newly completed scroll through the streets.

The tallit gadol is traditionally draped over the shoulders, but during prayer, some cover their head with it, notably during specific parts of the service such as the Amidahand when called to the Torah for an aliyah.

In the Talmudic and post-Talmudic periods the tefillin were worn by rabbis and scholars all day, and a special tallit was worn at prayer; hence they put on the tefillin before the tallit, as appears in the order given in "Seder Rabbi Amram Gaon" (p. 2a) and in the Zohar. In modern practice, the opposite order is considered more "correct". Based on the Talmudic principle of tadir v'she'ayno tadir, tadir kodem (תדיר ושאינו תדיר, תדיר קודם: lit., frequent and infrequent, frequent first), when one performs more than one mitzva at a time, those that are performed more frequently should be performed first. While the tallit is worn daily, tefillin are not worn on Shabbat and holidays.

On the fast day of Tisha B'Av, different customs prevail. Some Ashkenazim do not wear a tallit gadol during the morning (Shacharit) service and those who do omit the blessing regarding donning a fringed garment (Tzitzit); at the afternoon service (Mincha), those who wear a tallit gadol make the blessing on fringes then.^[20] Some Sephardim (according to Kabbalah and the local custom (Minhag) for Jerusalem) wear the tallit at Shacharit as usual.^[21]

The Kabbalists considered the tallit as a special garment for the service of God, intended, in connection with the tefillin, to inspire awe and reverence for God at prayer.^[22]The tallit gadol is worn by worshipers at the morning prayer on weekdays, Shabbat, and holy days; by the hazzan (cantor) at every prayer while before the ark; and by the reader of Torah, as well as by all other functionaries during the Torah reading.

History

The literal commandment in the bible was not to wear a tallit but to attach tzitzit to the corners of one's four-cornered garments, implying that such clothes were worn in any event by people of the region. Such garments were large, white and rectangular and used as a garment, bed sheet, and burial shroud. These four-cornered garments may have developed from similar garments suitable for the climate of West Asia where typically the days are hot and the garment can be draped around the body and head to provide cover from the sun or just bunched up on the shoulders for later evening use; the evenings can be dramatically cool and the garment could be draped around the neck and shoulders like a scarf to provide warmth. Such garments continue to be worn today in the region, for instance the Bedouin square-form abbaya.

Though in biblical times the tzitzit were attached to such everyday garments, both the present tallit gadol and tallit katan developed subsequently to address the fact that Jews no longer wore four-cornered garments, and were in danger therefore of losing this mitzvah.^[23] The tallit katan is worn all day, usually as an undergarment; the tallit gadol is almost exclusively worn only for morning prayers, rarely outside.

Weddings

In many Sephardic communities, the groom traditionally wears a tallit gadol under the chuppah (wedding canopy). This is also the custom in German Jewish communities. In non-German Ashkenazi communities, a more widespread custom is that the groom wears a kittel. In Hasidic and some non-Hasidic communities, an overcoat is worn over the kittel.

Burials

In the Diaspora, Jews are buried in a plain, wooden casket. The corpse is collected from the place of death (home, hospital, etc.) by the chevra kadisha (burial committee). After a ritual washing of the body, the body of men is dressed in a kittel and then a tallit gadol. One of the tzitzit is then cut off. In the Land of Israel, burial is without a casket, and the kittel and tallit are the only coverings for the corpse. Women are buried in white shrouds only.

Additional occasions

In addition to the morning prayers of weekdays, Shabbat and holidays, a tallit gadol is also worn for Selichos in Ashkenazic communities by the prayer leader, even though it is still night.^[24] A tallit is also worn at night on Yom Kippur, from Kol Nidre, which begins during the daylight hours until after the evening (Ma'ariv) service.^[25]

Types of tallitot

Tallit katan

An Orthodox Jewish man wearing a wool tallit katan under his vest.

The tallit katan (Yiddish/Ashkenazic Hebrew tallis koton; "small tallit") is a fringed garment traditionally worn either under or over one's clothing by Jewish males. It is a poncho-like garment with a hole for the head and special twined and knotted fringes known as tzitzit attached to its four corners. The requirements regarding the fabric and fringes of a tallit katan are the same as that of a tallit gadol. Generally a tallit katan is made of wool or cotton.

Although Sephardi halakha generally maintains a distinct preference for a woolen garment as per the ruling of the Shulchan Aruch, among Ashkenazim customs are split, with the Rema ruling that all garment types are acceptable.^[26] Whilst the Mishnah Berurah and Rabbi Moshe Feinstein recommend wearing a woolen garment in accordance with the Shulchan Aruch's ruling, the Chazon Ish was known to wear cotton, in accordance with the ruling of the Vilna Gaon.^[27] This was also the practice of Rabbi Joseph Soloveitchik, and that of German Jewry historically.^[28]

While all four cornered garments are required to have tzitzit, the custom of specially wearing a tallit katan is based on a verse in Numbers 15:38-39 which tells Moses to exhort the Children of Israel to "make them throughout their generations fringes in the corners of their garments."^[29] Wearing a tallit kattan is not mandated in Biblical law, but in Rabbinic law the practice is strongly encouraged for men, and often considered obligatory or a binding custom.^[26][30][31]

The tallit katan is also known as arba kanfot (Yiddish/Ashkenazic Hebrew: arba kanfos), literally "four corners", and may be referred to synecdochally as tzitzit.

Tallit gadol

A typical tallit bag. The Hebrewembroidery says tallit. Frequently the owner will add additional embroidery with their name.

The tallit gadol (Yiddish/Ashkenazic Hebrew tallis godoil; traditionally known as tallét gedolah among Sephardim), or "large" tallit, is worn over one's clothing resting on the shoulders. This is the prayer shawl that is worn during the morning services in synagogue by all male participants, and in many communities by the leader of the afternoon and evening prayers as well. The tallit gadol is usually woven of wool — especially among Ashkenazim. Some Spanish, Portuguese and Italian Jews use silk tallitot. The Portuguese Jewish community in The Netherlands has the tradition of decorating the corners of the Tallit. Today some tallitot are made of polyester and cotton. Tallitot may be of any colour but are usually white with black, blue or white stripes along the edge. Sizes of tallitot vary, and are a matter of custom and preference. Some are large enough to cover the whole body while others hang around the shoulders, the former being more common among Orthodox Jews, the latter among Conservative, Reform and other denominations. The neckband of the tallit, sometimes woven of silver or gold thread, is called the atarah which literally means crown but is often referred to as the collar. The tallit gadol is often kept in a dedicated pouch or cloth bag (often of velvet) which can be quite simple or ornately decorated.

The tallit gadol is typically either all white, white with black stripes, or white with blue stripes. The all-white and black-and-white varieties have traditionally been the most common, with the blue-and-white variety, in the past said to be in remembrance of the blue thread or tekhelet, becoming increasingly prevalent in recent years among non-Orthodox Jews on account of the association of blue and white with the State of Israel.^[32][33] The all-white variety is customary among Sepharadic communities, whereas among Ashkenazic communities the tendency is toward white tallitot with black stripes.^[34] One explanation for the significance of the black stripes is that their black color symbolizes the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem and the exile of the Jews from the land of Israel.^[35][36]

In many Jewish communities, the tallit is worn in the synagogue by all men and boys over bar mitzvah age (and in some communities even younger). Aside from German Jews and Oberlander Jews, men in most Ashkenazi communities (which comprise the majority of Jews today) start wearing the tallit after their wedding.

Scarf in Judaism

Women

In rabbinic law, women are not required to wear a tallit or other forms of tzitzit. In contemporary Orthodox Judaism, it is not accepted for women to publicly wear any form of tzitzit.^[37] Opinions different on whether women are permitted or forbidden to do so. Authorities such as Moshe Feinstein^[38], Joseph Soloveitchik, and Eliezer Melamedhave approved of women wearing tzitzit in private, on a feminine style garment, if their motivation is "for God's sake" and not a protest against the Sages or a feminist statement.^[39][40][41] In Orthodox spaces, such as the gender-segregated sections of the Western Wall, women have been permitted to wear feminine tallitot—usually colorful shawls worn around the neck—but harassed, expelled or arrested for wearing the more traditional garments that are considered masculine.^[42]

Women in non-Orthodox (Reform, Conservative, Karaite, Reconstructionist and others) are not prohibited from wearing a tallit, and usually encouraged to do so, especially when called to the Torah or leading services from the bimah. Women in Conservative Judaism began to revive the wearing of the tallit in the 1970s, usually using colors and fabrics distinct from the traditional garment worn by men, in the spirit of (but not necessarily out of adherence to) the contemporary Orthodox rulings regarding women not wearing "male-style" garments.^[43] It has become common in Reform and other non-Orthodox streams for girls to receive a tallit at their bat mitzvah,^[44][45] although some do not subsequently wear it on a regular basis.^[46] Other women have adopted the tallit later in life, including the larger, traditional style, to connect with their communities, embody egalitarian values, or create a personalized connection to Judaism.^[46] It is rare for women to wear a tallit katan.^[47]

References

1.       ^ Jacob Rader Marcus. This I Believe: Documents of American Jewish Life. p. 269. ISBN 0-87668-782-6.

2.       ^ Jennifer Heath (2008). The Veil: Women Writers on its History, Lore, and Politics. University of California Press. p. 211. ISBN 0-520-25040-0.

3.       ^ Ilana M. Blumberg (2009). Houses of Study: A Jewish Woman Among Books. University of Nebraska Press. p. 64. ISBN 0-8032-2449-4.

4.       ^ Joseph Leftwich (1974). An Anthology of Modern Yiddish Literature. Walter de Gruyter. p. 338. ISBN 90-279-3001-5.

5.       ^ Rabbi Daniel Kohn. "My Jewish Learning — Prayer Services". Archived from the original on September 22, 2008. Retrieved September 28, 2012.

6.       ^ Rabbi Shraga Simmons. "Tzitzit". aish.com.

7.       ^ Numbers 15:39–40

8.       ^ Second Ed., Vol. 19, Som–Tn, 2007

9.       ^ "What's Wrong With a Silk Tallit Prayer Shawl?". Chabad.

10.    ^ "Discussion on Mishnah Menachot 39b".

11.    ^ "Tzitzit made of kilayim?". Kehuna.org.

12.    ^ Rambam: Mishneh Torah, Laws of Tzizit, 3rd Chapter, #6/7 ‹See Tfd›(in Hebrew)

13.    ^ Numbers 15:38

14.    ^ Numbers 15:38

15.    ^ "Ptil Tekhelet - The common thread uniting our Jewish past, present and future". Ptil Tekhelet.

16.    ^ "Techelet (Blue Thread)". Chabad.

17.    ^ Jastrow, Marcus (1926). Dictionary of the Targumim, the Talmud etc. E. Shapiro Valentine & Co. ISBN 978-1-56563-860-0., page 537

18.    ^ Numbers 15: 39–40

19.    ^ (see Numbers 15:40)

20.    ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2013-01-25. Retrieved 2012-12-23.

21.    ^ Rabbi Yirmiyahu Ullman. "The Laws of Tisha B'Av". Ohr Somayach.

22.    ^ Zohar, Exodus Toledot, p. 141a)

23.    ^ "Tallit (The Prayer Shawl)". My Jewish Learning.

24.    ^ Eliyahu Ki Ṭov (1997). Dovid Landesman; Joyce Bennett (eds.). The Book of Our Heritage: The Jewish Year and Its Days of Significance, Volume 1. Feldheim Publishers. p. 1042. ISBN 9780873067638.

25.    ^ Cardin, Nina Beth. The Tapestry of Jewish Time: A Spiritual Guide to Holidays and Life-Cycle Events. p. 73.

26.    ^ Jump up to:^a b Neustadt, Doniel (2004). "Tallis Katan: Questions and Answers". Archived from the original on 2012-01-19.

27.    ^ Enkin, Ari (February 19, 2008). "Tzitzit - Cotton or Wool?". Hirhurim.

28.    ^ "Halacha of the Week, parshat Ki Tisa". Torah Academy of Bergen County. February 26, 2005.

29.    ^ Wein, Berel (2002). Living Jewish: Values, Practices and Traditions. p. 72.

30.                      ^ Rabbi Monique Susskind Goldberg, Tallit Kattan Archived 2010-12-18 at the Wayback Machine, Ask the Rabbi, The Schechter Institutes, June 2005.

Ghoonghat

 in Hindusm

 (Courtesy of Wikipedia, Encyclopedia)

A Hindu woman with a ghoonghat veil.

A ghoonghat (ghunghat, ghunghta, ghumta, odhni, laaj, chunari, jhund) is a headcovering or headscarf, worn in the Indian subcontinent, by some married Hindu, Jain and Sikh women to cover their heads, and often their faces. Generally aanchal or pallu, the loose end of a sari is pulled over the head and face to act as a ghunghat. A dupatta (long scarf) is also commonly used as a ghungat. Today, facial veiling by Hindu women as part of everyday attire is now mostly limited to the Hindi Belt region of India,^[1][2] particularly Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.

Facial veiling is not sanctioned in Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, and Sikhism but some sections of the society from the 1st century B.C. advocated the use of the veil for married women, which came to be known as ghoonghat.^[3] It has been both romanticized and criticized in religious and folk literature.^[4]

Etymology

The word ghoongat, ghunghat or ghunghta is derived from Avagunthana (Sanskrit: अवगुण्ठन) meaning veil, hiding and cloak and Oguntheti (Pali: ओगुन्थेति) to cover, veil overand hide.^[5][6]

History

Woman in ghoonghat; Rajput miniature painting from Bundi, Rajasthan, India.

The ghoongat, ghunghat or ghunghta veil evolved from ancient Avagunthana in (Sanskrit: अवगुण्ठन) veil, hiding and cloak.^[7] Early Sanskrit literature has a wide vocabulary of terms for the veils used by women, such as avagunthana meaning cloak-veil, uttariyameaning shoulder-veil, adhikantha pata meaning neck-veil, and sirovas-tra meaning head-veil.^[8][9] Most ancient citation of a face veil comes from Lalitvistara, a play written in 1st century AD about the life of Buddha after his Bhodhisatva.

In the post-Gupta period, Śūdraka, the author of Mṛcchakatika set in the fifth century BC, mentions that some females wore a thin head-veil (avagunthana) to conceal and beautify their coiffures. This hair-net of various colors was called as jālaka and it was used to keep the hair from being ruffled by breezes. However, this female hair-dress was not used by women every day and at every time. It was worn on special occasions like marriage or at the time of going out. Śūdraka notes that a married woman was expected to put on a veil while moving in the public. This may indicate that it was not necessary for unmarried females to put on a veil.^[10]

In Mṛcchakatika, courtesan Vasantasena's mother, having received ornaments for her daughter from a wealthy suitor to keep her as his mistress, she sends Vasantasena with her maid, asks her to go in the carriage bedecked with ornaments and to put on her avagunthana veil. This instruction is taken to signify that a courtesan who has accepted a suitor, had to use a veil in public similar to married women.^[11] At the end of the play when Vasanthasena is legally wedded, she receives the title "Vadhūśabda" meaning "title of a bride" simultaneously with the veil "vasantasenām avagunthya" meaning "a token of honorable marriage".^[12] In the same literature, courtesans' maid servant Madanika marries her lover Sarvilaka, a thief who changes his ways. Her new husband says to her that she has achieved what is difficult to acquire: "Vadhūśabda avagunthanam" meaning "the title and veil of a bride".^[13]

In the Pratimānātaka, a play by Bhāsa (3 - 4 CE) describes in context of the Avagunthana cloak-veil that "ladies may be seen without any blame [for the parties concerned] in a religious session, in marriage festivities, during a calamity and in a forest".^[14] The same sentiment is more generically expressed in Nāgānanda and Priyadarśikā by Harsha, where maidens were expected to wear no veil; it was donned only after the marriage.^[15] Later, the veil was referred to by the same term, avagunthana, in Śiśupālavadha and the Dashakumaracharita.^[16] According to commentator Sankara, the ladies of Sthanvisvara used to go about covering their faces with a veil.^[17]

Bride in ghoonghat during Muh Dikhai ceremony in Rajasthan, India.

In Buddhist Mahayana literature, Lalitavistara Sūtra written in the 3rd century CE, young bride Yasodharā objected to observe veiling (oguntheti/oguṇthikā) in front of respected elders. This was taken to be a sign of immodesty and willfulness, as people criticized her and gossiped.^[18] When she became aware of this, Yasodharā came before the assembled court and defended herself in a long statement: "Those whose thoughts have no cover, no shame or decorum or any virtue, those who gossip, may cover themselves with a thousand garments, yet they walk the earth naked. But those who veil their minds, control their senses, and have no thought for any other except their husband, why should they veil their faces?" Yasodharā's parents-in-law were delighted with their daughter-in-law's proud statement and gave her two white garments covered with jewels.^[19]

The Lalitavistara Sūtra reflects changing times around the 3rd century CE and Buddhists' attempt to counter this growing practice, as there is no mention of this entire incident in early Buddhist Theravada literature.^[20][21] However, the mention of face veil in any literature was mostly restricted to the royal and noble ladies.

In Valmiki's Ramayana dated between the 5th century BCE to the first century BCE, Prince Rama asks his wife Sita to unveil herself so that the gathered citizens of Ayodhya can take a look at them before they go in exile to the forest; there is no mention of Sita veiling herself again after this incident.^[22] At the end of the epic, hearing the news of Ravana's death, his queens giving up to lamentations rush outside without their Avagunthana, in which chief queen Mandodari surrounding his corpse says "Why do you not get angry, beholding me, having put off my veil, walk out on foot by the city gate? Do you behold your wives who have thrown off their veils. Why are you not angry seeing them all come out of the city?"^[23] Thus, it is notable that royal women avoided public gaze and veiling was expected to be worn only by married women.^[24]

In Abhijñānaśākuntalam by Kālidāsa, written between the 3rd and 4th century CE, when the heroine arrives at King Duhsanta's palace, seeking to take up her wifely status, the king first remarks "Kā svid avagunthanavati" meaning "who is this veiled one?" and immediately forbears to look at her, with the words "Anirvarnaniyam parakalatram" meaning "The wife of another is not to be inspected."^[25] This largely indicates that Avagunthana was a sign of a respectable married woman, and was a married woman's raiment.^[26]

Medieval period[edit]

In Kathāsaritsāgara written in the 11th century AD, heroine in the story Ratnaprabhā protesting: "I consider that the strict seclusion of women is a folly produced by jealousy. It is of no use whatsoever. Women of good character are guarded only by their own virtue and nothing else."^[27] Rational opposition against veiling and seclusion from spirited ladies resulted in the system not becoming popular for several centuries.^[28] However, it is notable that some section of society from the 1st century B.C. advocated the use of the veil for married women. There is no proof that a large section of society observed strict veiling until the medieval period.^[29]

Under the Islamic Mughal Empire, various aspects of veiling and seclusion of women was adopted, such as the concept of Purdah and Zenana, partly as an additional protection for women.^[30] Purdah became common in the 15th and 16th century, as both Vidyāpati and Chaitanya mention it.^[31] Sikhism was highly critical of purdah; Guru Amar Das condemned it and rejected seclusion and veiling of women, which saw decline of purdah among most classes during this period.

A Hindu bride with full veiling during Hindu wedding ceremony in Jaipur, Rajasthan, India.

Significance

In ghoonghat practice, facial veiling observed by married women is known as Laaj (Sanskrit: लज्जा, Lajja - modesty, honor, shame). In veiling practice, it literally means "To keep (one's) modesty, shame and honor". Earliest attested word Laaj in context of veiling is found in Valmiki's Ramayana as lajjaavaguNThanaan describing Mandodari.^[23] However, it is unclear whether it refers to facial veiling.^[32]

During a marriage ceremony, the bride wears a veil given by her parents. Later, during the ceremony the bride's mother-in-law covers her face with ghoonghat; she therefore simultaneously wears the veil given by her parents and that from her in-laws, symbolizing her passing from the protection of one's household to another.^[33]

Muh Dikhai (Devanagari: मूह दिखाई, first gaze) is a post-wedding ceremony, where the bride is formally introduced to the groom's relatives and extended family. The ceremony takes place once the bride arrives in her new home; each family member lifts her veil, looks at the bride and gives her a welcoming gift. She receives Shagun from her mother-in-law, which is typically jewelry, clothing and silverware. After this ceremony the bride observes full veiling for the next few months or until her parents-in-law advise her to unveil.^[34]

Post-1900s

During the early 1900s, women of royal and aristocratic class were first to abandon strict veiling in public. However, the head was loosely veiled due to sensitivity towards the custom during changing times.^[35] The other classes soon followed; it lingered on in some parts of India until well after the 1940s. Facial veiling has gradually declined, and is mostly limited to parts of Hindi-speaking areas today.^[36] In ghungat, a woman will veil her face from all men to whom she's related by marriage and who are senior to her husband. This would include, for example, her husband's father, elder brother and uncles. The effect of ghungat is to limit a young woman's interaction with older men.^[37][38]

In 2004, the India Human Development Survey (IHDS) found that 55% of women in India practice some form of ghoonghat, majority of them in Hindi-speaking states.^[39]The survey found that some women may cover their face fully but for others, partial covering of the face is more a nod to propriety than a large impediment.^[40]

Khata

(Courtesy of Wikipedia, Encyclopedia)

Blue Khatas tied to a stone stele at the former Manjusri Monastery, Mongolia

A khata or khatag^[1](Tibetan: ཁ་བཏགས་; Dzongkha: དར་, Dhar, Mongolian : ᠬᠠᠳᠠᠭ / Mongolian: хадаг / IPA: [χɑtɑk], khadag or hatag, Nepali: खतक khada, Chinese 哈達/哈达; pinyin: hādá/hǎdá^[2][3][4]) is a traditional ceremonial scarf in tengrism^[5] and Tibetan Buddhism. It originated in Tibetan culture^{[citation needed]} and is common in cultures and countries where Tibetan Buddhism is practiced or has strong influence.

The khata symbolizes purity and compassion and is worn or presented with incense at many ceremonial occasions, including births, weddings, funerals, graduations and the arrival or departure of guests. It is usually made of silk. Tibetan khatas are usually white, symbolising the pure heart of the giver,^[6][7] though it is quite common to find yellow-gold khata as well. Tibetan, Nepali, and Bhutanese khatas feature the ashtamangala. There are also special multi-colored khatas. Mongolian khatas are usually blue, symbolizing the blue sky. In Mongolia, khatas are also often tied to ovoos, stupas, or special trees and rocks.

13th Dalai Lama of Tibet in 1932

References

1.     ^ Das, Sarat Chandra (1902). Rockhill., William Woodville (ed.). Journey to Lhasa and Central Tibet. London: Royal Geographical Society. p. 32. OCLC 557688339. ... handing him a scarf (khatag), I expressed the hope that we might meet next year.

2.     ^ 现代汉语词典(第七版). [A Dictionary of Current Chinese (Seventh Edition).]. 北京. Beijing: 商务印书馆. The Commercial Press. 1 September 2016. p. 505. ISBN 978-7-100-12450-8. 【哈达】 hǎdá

3.     ^ 现代汉语规范词典(第3版). [A Standard Dictionary of Current Chinese (Third Edition).]. 北京. Beijing: 外语教学与研究出版社. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. May 2014. p. 507. ISBN 978-7-513-54562-4. 【哈达】 hǎdá

4.     ^ http://dict.revised.moe.edu.tw/cgi-bin/cbdic/gsweb.cgi?o=dcbdic&searchid=Z00000079118

5.     ^ "The Eternal Blue Sky" (PDF). Hoop. 2014. Retrieved 2016-06-19.

6.     ^ Staff. "Khata/Tibet "roof of the world"". Oracle ThinkQuest Education Foundation. Retrieved 2010-02-04.

7.     ^ "Ethnic Culture Thrives After Sichuan Quake". China Daily. Chengdu: China Daily. 2012-05-10. Archived from the original on 6 March 2018. Retrieved 2012-05-15. The 19-year-old Tibetan woman says she enjoys working as a guide at the site, where she also sells Katak, a white flaxen scarf the Tibetans present with respect, incense and other religious items.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Khata / Haddak.

It is a Tibetan custom to offer a khata (ཁ་བཏགས།) or greeting scarf to friends, relatives or guests as a way of indicating your honorable intentions, and wishes of happiness. When given as a farewell gesture it symbolizes a safe journey. When given to arriving guests it symbolizes welcome.

Why Do Tibetans Have the Custom of Offering Khata?

Because there was no silk in Tibet, Tibetan people used to offer animal skins as gifts. According to Bon historical record, during the time of the ninth king Degong Jayshi, people would place sheep wool around the neck and head for some religious rituals. This custom has been handed down from that time. Over time, people started making scarves and using silk. So, the scarf replaced the plain sheep’s wool and people put scarves on the neck and head. This is how the custom of khata came into being.

The Meaning of Offering Khata

The khata symbolizes purity and compassion. Its main colour is white, symbolizing the pure heart of the giver, though it is also quite common to find yellow-gold, blue and red khata as well in Tibet. They are often placed around the necks of statues and hung on the top of Thangka paintings. It is an ancient custom to bring a Khata when visiting a temple, shrine, guru, or teacher. This is a way of showing gratitude for the kindness of your teacher and the gems of their teachings.

Khata: Buddist Scarf

How Do Tibetan People Present Khata?

Tibetan people see khata as a very important gift, so offering Khata has its own ordination. People usually fold the khata into a double layer and hold it with two hands to offer. They usually bend 90 degrees and put their hands above their head when they offer to respected and honored people, such as the Buddha, a parent, teachers and elders. You can put the khata in their hands if giving it to a parent or elder. You can put it in front of the throne if it’s Buddha. If elders present Khata to young people, elders can put the Khata around the neck or on the hand of the young people.

READY TO PRESENT A KHATA

How to Offer a Khata | Shakyamuni Tibetan Buddhist Center

Eve teasing

(Courtesy of Wikipedia,Encyclopedia)

Eve teasing is a euphemism used throughout South Asia, which includes (but is not limited to) India,^[1][2] Pakistan,^[3] Bangladesh^[4] and Nepal,^[5] for public sexual harassment or sexual assault of women by men. The name "Eve" alludes to the Bible's creation storyconcerning Adam-Eve(in Islam, he is called Adam A’lyhimus Salaam and Eve is called Hazar Hawa) .^[6] Considered a problem related to delinquency in youth,^[7] it is a form of sexual aggression that ranges in severity from sexually suggestive remarks, brushing in public places and catcalls, to groping.^[8][9][10] The Indian National Commission for Women has suggested that the expression be replaced by a more appropriate term.^[11] According to them, considering the semantic roots of the term in Indian English, Eve teasing refers to the temptress nature of Eve, placing responsibility on the woman as a tease.^[12]Teasing the girls, passing comment on them, harassing them, troubling them purposely is called 'eve teasing.'

As with most forms of harassment, sexual harassment is notoriously difficult to prove as perpetrators often devise discreet ways to harass women, although Eve teasing usually occurs in public spaces and streets and on public transport.^[13]

Wearing Conservative Clothing:

Safe-Guide of Women Violence

Some guidebooks to the region warn female tourists to avoid attracting the attention of these kinds of men by wearing conservative clothing.

History

The problem first received public and media attention in the 1970s.^[17][18] In the following decades, more and more women started attending college and working independently, meaning that they were often no longer accompanied by a male escort as had been the norm in traditional society. In response, the problem grew to alarming proportions, despite this not being the case in other cultures where women go and come as they please.

Also seen during this period was a marked rise in the number of women coming forward to report cases of sexual harassment, due to changing public opinion against this practice. In addition, the severity of these incidents grew as well, in some cases leading to acid throwing.

The number of women's organisations and those working for women's rights also increased, and during this period reports of bride burning increased.^[22] 

'The Delhi Prohibition of Eve-teasing Bill 1984'

The increase in the number of violent incidents involving women meant previously lackadaisical attitudes towards women's rights had to be revised and supported by law. In the coming years, certain organisations played a key role in lobbying for the passing of legislation designed to protect women from aggressive behaviour from strangers, including 'The Delhi Prohibition of Eve-teasing Bill 1984'.^[19]

The death of a female student, Sarika Shah, in Chennai in 1998,^[23] resulted in some tough laws to counter the problem in South India.^[24] After murder charges were brought, about a half-dozen reports of suicide have been attributed to pressures caused by this behaviour.^[19] In February 2009, female students from Maharaja Sayajirao University (MSU) in Vadodara assaulted four young men near the family and community sciences faculty, after the men made lewd comments about a girl student staying in SD Hall hostel.^[25]

Many other cases go unreported for fear of reprisals and exposure to public shame. In some cases police let the offenders go, after public humiliation through the murga punishment.^[26] In 2008, a Delhi court ordered a 19-year-old youth caught making lewd remarks to passing females to distribute 500 handbills to youngsters outside schools and colleges detailing the consequences of indecent conduct.^[27]

Legal redres

Although Indian law doesn't use the term Eve teasing, victims earlier usually seek recourse through Section 294 of the Indian Penal Code, which sentences a man found guilty of making a girl or woman the target of obscene gestures, remarks, songs or recitation to a maximum jail sentence of three months. Section 292 of the IPC clearly spells out that showing pornographic or obscene pictures, books or papers to a woman or girl results in a fine of ₹2,000 (US$29) with two years' imprisonment for first offenders. In the case of a repeated offense, the offender may have a fine of ₹5,000 (US$72) with five years' imprisonment imposed. Under Section 509 of the IPC, obscene gestures, indecent body language and negative comments directed at any woman or girl or exhibiting any object which intrudes upon the privacy of a woman, carries a penalty of imprisonment for one year or a fine or both.^[28][29] The Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2013 introduced changes to the Indian Penal Code, making sexual harassment an expressed offence under Section 354 A, which is punishable up to three years of imprisonment and or with fine. The Amendment also introduced new sections making acts like disrobing a woman without consent, stalkingand sexual acts by person in authority an offense. It also made acid attacks a specific offence with a punishment of imprisonment not less than 10 years and which could extend to life imprisonment and with fine.^[30]

The National Commission for Women (NCW) also proposed No 9. Eve Teasing (New Legislation) 1988.^[11] The Indian Parliament has passed the Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act, 2013, which adds protections for female workers in most workplaces. The Act came into force from 9 December 2013.

Public response

Alternative Law Forum, Blank Noise, Maraa, Samvada and Vimochana

Nirbhaya Karnataka ("Fearless Karnataka") is a coalition of many individuals and groups including Alternative Law Forum, Blank Noise, Maraa, Samvada and Vimochana. After the rise of eve teasing cases in the 2000s, it organised several public awareness campaigns, including Take Back the Night, followed by another public art project titled, The Blank Noise Project, starting in Bangalore in 2003.^[32] A similar program to fight eve-teasing was also hosted in Mumbai in 2008.^[33]

In Delhi, one of India's most dangerous cities for women,^[34] the Department of Women and Child Development established a steering committee in 2009 to prepare the city for the Commonwealth Games to be held in 2010.^[35] In Mumbai, "Ladies Special" train compartments have been introduced to allow women to travel without the fear of being sexually harassed, for the length of the journey at least. Given that the number of women needing to travel has doubled since 1995, there is a very strong demand for these kinds of services.^[36] Today "Ladies Special" compartments are present in most local trains in big cities. The Delhi Metro also has exclusive women-only cars.^[37]

Eve teasing is highly criticised by the media and on social media websites such as Facebook.^[38]

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