The Islamic Research for Reviving of Knowledge-Science & Technology Center
Islamic Research for Reviving of Science & Technology Center
Tuesday, 14 August 2018
بسْمِ اللهِ الرَّحْمٰنِ الرَّحِيْمِﹺ
(In the name of Allah, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful)
Islamic Research for Reviving of Science & Technology Center (Elevated)
Post Code No: 4100
Post Office : Bandar
P.S: Sadarghat, Madarbari
P.S: Sadarghat, Madarbari
Chattagram (Chittagong)
BANGLADESH
BANGLADESH
بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم
.شَهِدَ اللَّهُ أَنَّهُ لَا إِلَٰهَ إِلَّا هُوَ وَالْمَلَائِكَةُ وَأُولُو الْعِلْمِ قَائِمًا بِالْقِسْطِ ۚ لَا إِلَٰهَ إِلَّا
هُوَ الْعَزِيزُ الْحَكِيمُ
●Shahidallahu Annahu Laa ilaaha illaa hua Wal Malaaikatu Wa oolul ‘ilmi Qoymam Bil Qistoi, laa ilaaha illa hual ‘Azhizhul Hakeem. (Al Quraan: Surah Ale Imran: Ayat: 18-19)
سُبْحَانَكَ لاَ عِلْمَ لَنَا إِلاَّ مَا عَلَّمْتَنَا إِنَّكَ أَنتَ الْعَلِيمُ الْحَكِيمُ
● Subhanaka laa 'ilma lanaa 'illamaa 'allamtanaa 'innaka 'antal-'Alimul
Hakeem: (Al Baqarah: Ayat: 32)
●Wakanallahu Sameea’n ‘Aleemaa(Surah An Nisa: Ayat:148)
●Ya’lamu Maa Byna Idihim Wamaa Kholfahum (Surah Al Baqorah-Ayat-ul-Kurshi, Ayat: 255)
●Alam Tara Annalla-ha Ya’lamu Maa Fis Samaawaati Wamaa fil Ardo.
(Surah Muzadalah:Ayat: 07)
●A’limul goibi wash shadati huar rahmaanur Raheem. (Surah Al Hashar:Ayat:22)
●Wahual azhizhul Hakeem. (Surah Al Hasar, Ayat:24).
Indeed, Allah, almighty is الْعَلِيمُ “*A’leem as well as الْحَكِيمُ“*Hakeem” and “A’leem” & “Hakeem” are 2 of 99 “Asmaus Shifaats” i.e., “Asmaul Husnaa of “Alla-h Robbul A’lameen.”
الْعَلِيمُ (‘Aleem)
Generally ﻋﻠﻴﻢ (‘Aleem) means a scholar recognized as an expert in Islamic law and theology.
OriginMid 19th century; earliest use found in Edward Lane (1801–1876), Orientalist. Partly from Arabic ʿā’leem scholar, (specifically) expert in Islamic law and theology, use as noun of the active participle of ʿa’lima to know, and partly from Arabic ʿa’leem knowing, learned. (Source: website)
The Arabic word 'Aleem,' comes from the root wordﻋﻠﻢ=ﻉ+ﻞ+ﻡ‘(Ayn+Laam+Meem),which means to know, knowledge, science etc. (Source: ditto)
الْحَكِيمُ Al Hakeem
Word Origin
Noun, (esp. in Muslim countries), Wise or Learned.
Word Origin and History for Hakeem Expand
Arabic Hakeem "wise," from stemof Hakuma "he was wise;" whence also
Hakam, judge," Hikmah "wisdom, science." (Source: Website)
Hakam, judge," Hikmah "wisdom, science." (Source: Website)
The common Dictionary meaning of “.ﺤﻜﻴﻡ”.(Hakeem) is “Wisdom” and the word ofWisdom’s common means are Knowledge, Perception, Astuteness, Intelligence, Acumen, Good judgment, Penetration, Judiciousness, Prudence and Suitability etc. On the other hand the common Dictionary meaning of ﻋﻠﻴﻢ (‘Aleem) is “Knowledge” and ‘Knowledge’ means Information, Science & Technology etc., and “Science” means Knowledge, talent, genius, brilliance, intelligence, intellect, outstanding ability, mastermind, whiz kid, brains etc., and Technology means Expertise, Know-how, Equipment, Machinery, apparatus, paraphernalia etc. But the meaning of “Hakeem” as well as “A’leem” in the ‘Holy Islam’ are very extensive/widespread, those are not explainable for limited human’s ‘Knowledge’ & Wisdom’ But the meaning of Wisdom and knowledge for almighty Alla-h are merely ‘Kudarat-e-ilaahia” i.e., keen miracle only!!!
The Holy Quraan is also “Hakeem
“Yaaseen, Wal Quraanil Hakeem.” (Surah Al Yaaseen, Ayat: 01).
Verily, the Holy Quraan is also “Hakeem” i.e., “Wahee” based “Kitabullah”.
Indeed, Alla-h, “A’limul Goibi Wash Shadah” and “Ahkamul Hakeemin”,Who descended Quraanil Hakeem.
“The legislation of Quran will spread all over the world, because it agrees with the mind, logic and wisdom.” – Leo Tolstoy.
Hazarat Idris ‘Alyhis Salaam: the founder of Islamic
Science & Education.
Idrīs (Arabic: إدريس) is an ancient prophet and patriarch mentioned in the Qur'an, whom Muslims believe was the third prophet after Adamand Seth.Islamic tradition has unanimously identified Idris with the biblical Enoch, although many Muslim scholars of the classical andmedieval periods also held that Idris and Hermes Trismegistus were the same person.(wikipedia/w.site)
Several of the classical commentators on the Qur'an, such as Al-Baizawi, said he was "called Idris from the Arabic dars, meaning "to instruct," from his knowledge of divine mysteries.(ditto)
The name "Idris", إدريس, has been described as perhaps having the origin of meaning "interpreter."[19] Traditionally, Islam holds the prophet as having functioned an interpretive and mystical role and therefore this meaning garnered a general acceptance (ditto).
It may be noted that the word of إدريس, “Idris” comes from “Daras” i.e. “teacher of knowledge”. One of renewed prophet of Allah, almighty was “Akhnun ‘Alyhis Salaam”,whose’s name became “Idris” due to use to teach (Daras) “knowledge” to his accompanies and the place of teaching (Daras) is called “Madrasa.
The World
Stands on Knowledge,
Science & Technology
What is Knowledge?
Knowledge
“Knowledge is a familiarity, awareness or understanding of someone or something, such as facts, information, descriptions, or skills, which is acquired through experience or education by perceiving, discovering, or learning”. (Source: Wikipedia)
“Knowledge can refer to a theoretical or practical understanding of a subject. It can be implicit (as with practical skill or expertise) or explicit (as with the theoretical understanding of a subject); it can be more or less formal or systematic”. (Ditto)
Definition:
Plato: “The classical definition, described by Plato, specifies that a statement must meet three criteria in
order to be considered knowledge: it must be justified, true, and believed”.(Ditto)
There are following several kinds of knowledge:
What is Science?
Science:
· “Science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe”. (Wikipedia)
Science (from Latin scientia, meaning "knowledge") is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. (Ditto)
What is Technology
“Technology ("science of craft", from Greek τέχνη, techne, "art, skill, cunning of hand"; and -λογία, -logia) is first robustly defined by Jacob Bigelow in 1829 as: "...principles, processes, and nomenclatures of the more conspicuous arts, particularly those which involve applications of science, and which may be considered useful, by promoting the benefit of society, together with the emolument [compensation] of those who pursue them."
1. The application of scientific knowledge for practical purposes is called “Technology”. It is the branch of knowledge dealing with applied sciences.
2. "Advances in computer technology" machinery and devices developed from scientific knowledge.
The Brief History of Science & Technology
“The earliest roots of science can be traced to the works of Ancient Egyptians and Mesopotanians, whose contributions entered and shaped Greek natural philosophy of classical antiquity. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, knowledge of Greek science deteriorated in Western Europe during the Middle Ages[5] but flourished in the Islamic Golden Age.[6] The recovery and assimilation of Greek and Islamic science into Western Europe during the 10th to 13th century preceded the revival of natural philosophy in the West, which continued to develop as the precursor of natural science from the Renaissance through the 19th century. Since the 17th century, scientific knowledge gradually became associated with the scientific method and was increasingly being formulated in terms of physical laws. Particularly in the 19th century, multiple distinguishing characteristics of contemporary science began to emerge.
Scientific Grounds
Research:
What is Computer?
Computer: The word of “Computer” comes from the word of ‘Compute’ i.e., counting, accounting etc. “Computer” is a one name of modern count Scientific and technological Instrument.
What is Computer Science?
Computer Science: “Computer Science is the study of the theory, experimentation and engineering that form the basis for the design and use of computers. It is the scientific and practical approach to computation and its applications and the systematic study of the feasibility, structure, expression, and mechanization of the methodical procedures (or *algorithms) that underlie the acquisition, representation, processing, storage, communication of, and access to information. An alternate, more succinct definition of computer science is the study of automating algorithmic processes that scale. A computer scientist specializes in the theory of computation and the design of computational systems. Mr. Barrage is called founder of ‘Computer Science’ for initiating digital counting system in Computer”. (Source: Wikipedia/Website)
What is CPU?
C.P.U’s full name is “Central Processing Unit. “CPU is the part of a computer system that is commonly referred to as the "brains" of a computer. The CPU is also known as the processor or microprocessor. The CPU is responsible for executing a sequence of stored instructions called a program”.
www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/ict/hardware/0inputandoutputdevicesrev3.shtml
The CPU is made up of three main parts:
1. Control Unit (CU): This part controls the input and output devices.
2. Arithmetic Logic Unit(ALU): This is the part that does all the working out: it does the entire math and makes the decisions.
3. Immediate Access Store (IAS): This is the memory available for programs and data.
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU):
“An arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is a digital circuit used to perform arithmetic and logic operations. It represents the fundamental building block of the central processing unit (CPU) of a computer. ... Most of the operations of a CPU are performed by one or more ALUs, which load data from input registers.
The control unit must communicate with both the arithmetic/logic unit and memory. The Arithmetic/Logic Unit The arithmetic/logic unit (ALU) contains the electronic circuitry that executes all arithmetic and logical operations. The arithmetic/logic unit can perform four kinds of arithmetic operations, or mathematical calculations: A modern computer's CPU usually contains an execution core with two or more instruction pipelines, a data and address bus, a dedicated arithmetic logic unit (ALU, also called the math co-processor), and in some cases special high-speed memory for caching program instructions from RAM. The CPU's in ... the CPU...) 10 = 0000 1010 23 = 0001 0111 --------------- 0010 0001 = 33.” (Source: Aforesaid)
What is Mathematics?
Definitions:
● Mathematics is the classification and study of all possible patterns. (Walter Warwick Sawyer, 1955).
● Mathematics is the “Fuel of Science.” [What is Mathematics and why: 1st Edition, 1999, by Sheikh Muhammad Abu Taher, Bsc. (honors), Msc. (Mathe) Chittagong University, Bangladesh].
Dictionary Definitions:
Oxford English Dictionary,1933: The abstract science which investigates deductively the conclusions implicit in the elementary conceptions of spatial and numerical relations, and which includes as its main divisions geometry, arithmetic, and algebra.
American Heritage Dictionary,2000: The study of the measurement, properties, and relationships of quantities and sets, using numbers and symbols.
Encyclopædia Britannica,2006: The science of structure, order, and relation that has evolved from elemental practices of counting, measuring, and describing the shapes of objects.
The Importance of Mathematics
“The discipline of mathematics now covers-in addition to the more or less standard fields of number theory, algebra, geometry, analysis (calculus), mathematical logic and set theory, and more applied mathematics such as probability theory and statistics - a bewildering array of specialized areas and fields of study, including group theory, order theory, knot theory, sheaf theory, topology, differential geometry, fractal geometry, graph theory, functional analysis, complex analysis, singularity theory, catastrophe theory, chaos theory, measure theory, model theory, category theory, control theory, game theory, complexity theory and many more”. (Source: Web)
“Mathematics may be defined as “the study of relationships among quantities, magnitudes and properties, and also of the logical operations by which unknown quantities, magnitudes, and properties may be deduced” (Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia) or "the study of quantity, structure, space and change" (Wikipedia).
The Brief History of Mathematics
“The history of mathematics is nearly as old as humanity itself. Since antiquity, mathematics has been fundamental to advances in science, engineering, and philosophy. It has evolved from simple counting, measurement and calculation, and the systematic study of the shapes and motions of physical objects, through the application of abstraction, imagination and logic, to the broad, complex and often abstract discipline we know today.
From the notched bones of early man to the mathematical advances brought about by settled agriculture in Mesopotamia and Egypt and the revolutionary developments of ancient Greece and its Hellenistic empire, the story of mathematics is a long and impressive one.
The East carried on the baton, particularly China, India and the medieval Islamic empire, before the focus of mathematical innovation moved back to Europe in the late Middle Ages and Renaissance. Then, a whole new series of revolutionary developments occurred in 17th Century and 18th Century Europe, setting the stage for the increasing complexity and abstraction of 19th Century mathematics, and finally the audacious and sometimes devastating discoveries of the 20th Century.
What is Binary Code?
The word of “Binary” comes from the root word “Bi” means bilateral i.e. two(0 & 1) based number. ‘Digital world’ are based on “Binary encode”.
“A bit string, interpreted as a binary number, can be translated into a decimal number. For example, the lower case a, if represented by the bit string 01100001 (as it is in the standard ASCII code), can also be represented as the decimal number 97”. (Aforesaid)
“The modern binary number system, the basis for binary code, was invented by Gottfried Leibniz in 1679 and appears in his article Explication del' Arithmétique Binaire. The full title is translated into English as the "Explanation of the binary arithmetic", which uses only the characters 1 and 0, with some remarks on its usefulness, and on the light it throws on the ancient Chinese figures of Fu Xi (1703). Leibniz's system uses 0 and 1, like the modern binary numeral system. Leibniz encountered the I Ching through French Jesuit Joachim Bouvet and noted with fascination how its hexagramscorrespond to the binary numbers from 0 to 111111 and concluded that this mapping was evidence of major Chinese accomplishments in the sort of philosophical mathematics he admired.[2][3] Leibniz saw the hexagrams as an affirmation of the universality of his own religious belief”.
(Source: https//wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_code)
"In computing and telecommunications sector, binary codes are used for various methods of encoding data, such as character strings, into bit strings. Those methods may use fixed-width or variable-width strings. In a fixed-width binary code, each letter, digit, or other character is represented by a bit string of the same length; that bit string, interpreted as a binary number, is usually displayed in code tables in octal, decimal or hexadecimal notation. There are many character sets and many character encodings for them. A binary code represents text, computer processor instructions, or other data using any two-symbol system, but often the binary number system's 0 and 1. The binary code assigns a pattern of binary digits (bits) to each character, instruction, etc. For example, a binary string of eight bits can represent any of 256 possible values and can therefore.
Represent a variety of different items
“Modern computers use binary encoding for instructions and data. Telephone calls are carried digitally on long distance and mobile phone networks using pulse-code modulation and on voice over IP networks” (Source: Web/Wikipedia).
Noted that "A (a)" the first consonant of English alphabet is represented in Binary Code: "1100001" as a bit string (which is 97 in decimal).
“Computer” does not know/understand any alphabet of English, Arabic, Urdu, Farsi, Hindi, Bengali etc., except Binary Code 0 & 1 i.e., English/Arabic/Urdu/Bengali/Hindi/Farsi etc., all sorts of languages are being expressed in Binary Code 0 & 1, just like the following examples:
i) 001010101010011010110
ii) 01101011001010
iii) 10110101110110110
i) 001010101010011010110
ii) 01101011001010
iii) 10110101110110110
(Source: Computer & Information Technology, Bangladesh)
What is Algorithm?
“Some words reflect the importance of al-Khwārizmī's contributions to mathematics. "Algebra" is derived from al-jabr, one of the two operations he used to solve quadratic equations. Algorism and algorithm stemfrom Algoritmi, the Latin form of his name.[8] His name is also the origin of (Spanish) guarismo[9] and of (Portuguese) algarismo, both meaning digit”. (Source: Web.)
Search Algorithm
Neural Machine Translation System (NMT)
Search Algorithm: For Post Translate, was being used to “Phrase based Translation System” and the said translating system, perform with word by word translate; not sentence-wise translation then counting feasibility and expressing meaning with Search Algorithm. The proposed translate is to be done with artificial intellectual directed Neural Machine Translation System (NMT)”.
What is Digital?
The current era is called “Digital Era”.
The word of “Digital” comes from the word of “Digit” means any one figure 1 (one) to 9 (nine) of Arabic Numerals with 0 (zero).
(Of signals or data) expressed as series of the digits 0 and 1, typically represented by values of a physical quantity such as voltage or magnetic polarization.
“Describes any system based on discontinuous data or events. Computers Are digital machines because at their most basic level they can distinguish between just two values, 0 and 1, or off and on. There is no simple way to represent all the values in between, such as 0.25. All data that a computer processes must be encoded digitally, as a series of zeroes (0) and ones (1).” (Source: Web.)
“The opposite of digital is analog. A typical analog device is a clock in which the hands move continuously around the face. Such a clock is capable of indicating every possible time of day. In contrast, a digital clock is capable of representing only a finite number of times (every tenth of a second”. (-Ditto-)
“In general, humans experience the world analogically. Vision, for example, is an analog experience because we perceive infinitely smooth gradations of shapes and colors. Most analog events, however, can be simulated digitally. Photographs in newspapers, for instance, consist of an array of dots that is either black or white. From afar, the viewer does not see the dots (the digital form), but only lines and shading, which appear to be continuous. Although digital representations are approximations of analog events, they are useful because they are relatively easy to store and manipulate electronically. The trick is in converting from an along to digital, and back again”. (-Ditto-)
Internally, computers are digital because they consist of discrete units called bits that are either on or off. But by combining many bits in complex ways, computers simulate analog events. In one sense, this is what computer science is all about. (-Ditto-)
Europe Stands on Knowledge, Science
Roman Empire
The World Stands on Knowledge, Science & Technology
The World stands on Knowledge, Science and Technology based the following some National and International organizations:
The United Nations
The United Nations is an intergovernmental organization tasked to promote international co-operation and to create and maintain international order.
Official languages:
• Arabic
• Chinese
• English
• French
• Russian
• Spanish[2]
Leaders:
• Secretary General: António Guterres
• Deputy Secretary-General: Amina J. Mohammed
• General Assembly President: Miroslav Lajčák
• Economic and Social Council President: Marie
Chatardová.
• UN Chartersigned:
• Charter entered into force:
Subsidiaries: United Nations Security Council.
The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization tasked to promote international co-operation and to create and maintain international order. A replacement for the ineffective League of Nations, the organization was established on 24 October 1945 after World War II with the aim of preventing another such conflict. At its founding, the UN had 51 member states; there are now 193. The headquarters of the UN is in Manhattan, New York City, and is subject to extraterritoriality. Further main offices are situated in Geneva, Nairobi, and Vienna. Its objectives include maintaining international peace and security, promoting human rights, fostering social and economic development, protecting the environment, and providing humanitarian aid in cases of famine, natural disaster, and armed conflict. The UN is the largest, most familiar, most internationally represented and most powerful intergovernmental organization in the world.
The UN Charter was drafted at a conference between April–June 1945 in San Francisco, and was signed on 26 June 1945 at the conclusion of the conference; this charter took effect on 24 October 1945, and the UN began operation. The UN has six principal organs: the General Assembly (the main deliberative assembly); the Security Council (for deciding certain resolutions for peace and security); the Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC; for promoting international economic and social co-operation and development); the Secretariat (for providing studies, information, and facilities needed by the UN); the International Court of Justice (the primary judicial organ); and the UN Trusteeship Council (inactive since 1994). UN System agencies include the World Bank Group, the World Health Organization, the World Food Programme, UNESCO, and UNICEF. [(Courtesy of Wikipedia-Encyclopedia)]
The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (or Global Goals for Sustainable Development) are a collection of 17 global goals set by the United Nations Development Programme. The formal name for the SDGs is: "Transforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development." That has been shortened to "2030 Agenda. The goals are broad and interdependent, yet each has a separate list of targets to achieve. Achieving all 169 targets would signal accomplishing all 17 goals. Paragraph 54 of United Nations General Assembly Resolution A/RES/70/1 of 25 September 2015 contains the goals and targets. The UN-led process involved its 193 Member States and global civil society. The resolution is a broad intergovernmental agreement that acts as the Post-2015 Development Agenda.The SDGs build on the principles agreed upon in Resolution A/RES/66/288, entitled "The Future We Want" This was a non-binding document released as a result of Rio+20 Conference held in 2012.
Goal No. 4: Quality Education
"Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all."
Major progress has been made in access to education, specifically at the primary school level, for both boys and girls. Still, at least 22 million children in 43 countries will miss out on pre-primary education unless the rate of progress doubles.
Education and technology
Massive open online courses (MOOCs) are free open education offered through online platforms. The (initial) philosophy of MOOCs was to open up quality Higher Education to a wider audience. As such, MOOCs are an important tool to achieve Goal 4 ("Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all").At the same time, MOOCs also contribute to Goal 5, in that they are gender neutral and can give women and girls improved access to education.
UNESCO
Specialized agency
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations based in Paris. (Courtesy of Wikipedia-Encyclopedia)
UNESCO's aim is "to contribute to the building of peace, the eradication of poverty, sustainable development and intercultural dialogue through education, the sciences, culture, communication and information". Other priorities of the organization include attaining quality Education For All and lifelong learning, addressing emerging social and ethical challenges, fostering cultural diversity, a culture of peace and building inclusive knowledge societies through information and communication.
The broad goals and objectives of the international community—as set out in the internationally agreed development goals, including theMillennium Development Goals (MDGs)—underpin all UNESCO strategies and activities.
(Courtesy: https:en.wikipedia.org[wiki/UNESCO#cite_note-5)
UNESCO and its mandate for international cooperation can be traced back to a League of Nations resolution on 21 September 1921, to elect a Commission to study feasibility.[9][10] On 18 December 1925, the International Bureau of Education (IBE) began work as a non-governmentalorganization in the service of international educational development. However, the onset of World War II largely interrupted the work of these predecessor organizations.
After the signing of the Atlantic Charter and the Declaration of the United Nations, the Conference of Allied Ministers of Education (CAME) began meetings in London which continued from 16 November 1942 to 5 December 1945. On 30 October 1943, the necessity for an international organization was expressed in the Moscow Declaration, agreed upon by China, the United Kingdom, the United States and the USSR. This was followed by the Dumbarton Oaks Conference proposals of 9 October 1944. Upon the proposal of CAME and in accordance with the recommendations of the United Nations Conference on International Organization (UNCIO), held in San Francisco in April–June 1945, a United Nations Conference for the establishment of an educational and cultural organization (ECO/CONF) was convened in London 1–16 November 1945 with 44 governments represented. A prominent[clarification needed] figure in the initiative for UNESCO was Rab Butler, the Minister of Education for the United Kingdom.[12] At the ECO/CONF, the Constitution of UNESCO was introduced and signed by 37 countries, and a Preparatory Commission was established.[13] The Preparatory Commission operated between 16 November 1945, and 4 November 1946—the date when UNESCO's Constitution came into force with the deposit of the twentieth ratification by a member state.[14]
UNESCO started organizing training and education for journalists in the 1950s. In response to calls for a "New World Information and Communication Order" in the late 1970s, UNESCO established the International Commission for the Study of Communication Problems, which produced the 1980 MacBride report (named after the Chair of the Commission, the Nobel Peace Prize laureate Seán MacBride).
UNESCO has official relations with 322 international non-governmental organizations (NGOs).Most of these are what UNESCO calls "operational"; a select few are "formal".The highest form of affiliation to UNESCO is "formal associate", and the 22 NGOs with formal associate (ASC) relations occupying offices at UNESCO are:
Abbr
|
Organization
|
EI
| |
IAU
| |
ICPHS
| |
ICSU
| |
ICOM
| |
ICSSPE
| |
ICA
| |
ICOMOS
| |
IFJ
| |
IFLA
| |
IFPA
|
International Federation of Poetry Associations
|
INSULA
|
International Scientific Council for Island Development
|
ISSC
| |
IUCN
| |
IUTAO
|
International Union of Technical Associations and Organizations
|
WAN
| |
WFEO
| |
WFUCA
|
World Federation of UNESCO Clubs, Centres and Associations etc.
|
The World is being developed under
UNO & OIC Joint Venture
OIC works in close collaboration with United Nations Development Program (UNDP) as well as United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), World Health Organization. (WHO),The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), The Eastern Mediterranean Regional Office (EMRO).
COMSTECH-EMRO/WHO Research Grants Program.
The Eastern Mediterranean Regional Office of the World Health Organization. (WHO/EMRO) and the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) Standing Committee for Science and Technological Cooperation (COMSTECH) established a joint grant in 2004 to support research in EMR countries (all of which are members of OIC) in applied Biotechnology and Genomics. The overall purpose behind the initiation of the grant was to promote research, encourage networking, generate new knowledge and stimulate the application of biotechnology and genomic driven interventions in health care.
The first call for EMRO-COMSTECH Grant was made in late 2004 and 16 proposals from the member states were funded through the Grant. For the 2nd round of RAB&GH there was a strict condition of collaborative proposals. Therefore, only such proposals were considered eligible for EMRO-COMSTECH Grant in which investigators from two or more institutions from EMRO countries collaborated on a unified research topic pertaining to one of the priority areas specified for the Grant.
As a result, 19 proposals were funded in the region involving 8 collaborative groups each comprising 2 or 3 institutes from the same or different countries. As for the 3rd call, 14 collaborative proposals were funded, and in the 4th call 11 proposals for health research were selected.
The main aim of the EMRO-COMSTECH Grant is to focus on application of biotechnological and genomic techniques to strengthen health systems and improve health care. It is expected that the priority research areas identified for the Grant will stimulate and sustain multidisciplinary applied research to exploit the full potential of genome information to underpin applications to human health. Emphasis was put on research aimed at bringing basic knowledge to the application stage in order, to enable real, consistent and coordinated progress for improving the quality of health care in the Region. The present day genomic and biotechnological research, being interdisciplinary in nature, necessitates team work of diverse capabilities and institutional facilities.
Thus, one of the main purposes of EMRO-COMSTECH Grant is to support South-South cooperation for the conduct of applied research. Normally, collaborative research requires a broad range of expertise and participants, with collaboration between researchers in other disciplines, sectors, institutions and geographic locations. However, even a modest collaboration among the researchers of two different organizations/ institutions of the EMR countries is expected to:
Synergize the process to overcome obstacles and manage inescapable interdependencies needed for research in genomics and biotechnology;§
Make services more accessible and effective;§
Increase the integration of research results into other sectors (e.g., industry, government agencies or departments, community groups, universities) and offer opportunities to aid the dissemination of results;§
Diversify capability to accomplish tasks (e.g., provide opportunities for trainees to spend time in different laboratories, exchange of data and experience between institutions and sectors);§
Foster ties between researchers in the academic, community, private and public sectors.§
Organisation of Islamic Cooperation(OIC)
The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC; Arabic: منظمة التعاون الإسلامي; French: Organisation de la coopération islamique) is an international organization founded in 1969, consisting of 57 member states, with a collective population of over 1.3 billion as of 2009 with 47 countries being Muslim Majority countries. The organisation states that it is "the collective voice of the Muslim world" and works to "safeguard and protect the interests of the Muslim world in the spirit of promoting international peace and harmony".
The OIC has permanent delegations to the United Nations and the European Union. The official languages of the OIC are Arabic, English, and French.
Motto: "To safeguard the interests and ensure the progress and well-being of Muslims"
Member states
Observer states
Type: Religious
Leaders:
Secretary-General: Yousef Al-Othaimeen
Establishment
• Charter signed: 25 September 1969
International Islamic Fiqh Academy, Jeddah.
Organisation of the Islamic Conference
International Islamic Fiqh Academyمجمع الفقه الاسلامي الدولي
International Islamic Fiqh Academyمجمع الفقه الاسلامي الدولي
Formation: 1981
Headquarters: Jeddah
Location: 21°34′20″N 39°10′7″E
Saudi Arabia
Region served: Muslim world
Official language: Arabic
Secretary General: Ahmad Khaled Babaker
Parent organization: Organisation of the Islamic Conference
Website: http://www.fiqhacademy.org.sa/
Islamic Fiqh Academy (Arabic: مجمع الفقه الاسلامي الدولي) is an Academy for advanced study of Islam based in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. Rsolution No.8/3-C, (I.S.) adopted by the Third Islamic Summit Conference, held in Makkah Al-Mukarramah and Taif called for the establishment of an Islamic Fiqh Academy (Jurisprudence) Academy. Besides traditional Islamic sciences, the IFA seeks to advance knowledge in the realms of culture, science, and economics. (Courtesy of Wikipedia, Encyclopedia)
Major Stakeholders Meeting for Drafting Implementation
Mechanism of the OIC STI Agenda 2026
Held on: December 11-12, 2017
Venue: COMSTECH Secretariat, Islamabad, Pakistan.
COMSTECH, the OIC Ministerial Standing Committee on Scientific & Technological Cooperation, hosted a high level meeting of representatives of OIC member states on 11th and 12th of December, 2017 for devising an implementation strategy for the Ten Year OIC Science, Technology and Innovation Agenda. This plan was approved as the ‘STI Agenda 2026’ at the First OIC Summit on Science and Technology held earlier this year in Astana, Kazakhstan, and COMSTECH was entrusted with the responsibility to prepare its Implementation Strategy.
The major goal of the Ten Year Plan is to develop the scientific manpower and capabilities of the Islamic countries. For this purpose, the Plan envisages a range of multinational Big Science projects as well as smaller collaborative and institutional support schemes. The Big Science projects include setting up of medium sized astronomical telescope, plant gene banks, high powered computation centers and small satellites. A guiding principle of the Plan is to nurture the thinking mind by promoting the culture of Science, Technology and Innovation. The 2-billion-dollar Plan will be implemented through contributions from Member States and the Islamic Development Bank.
In the meeting thorough discussions were held on different components of the Implementation Mechanism such as composition of the Steering and Expert Committees, identification of experts, nature and extent of national contribution from member states, determining priorities in implementation and the time lines etc. Participants included delegates from Egypt, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Malaysia, Oman, Pakistan, Turkey, Uzbekistan, and representatives from OIC Secretariat and Islamic Academy of Sciences (IAS). The Chairman Higher Education Commission of Pakistan, Secretary of the Ministry of Science & Technology, Chairman Pakistan Science Foundation and some other senior scientists from Pakistan also participated in the meeting.
Among other highlights were announcements of substantial funding for the Plan. Initial pledges were made by Turkey and Egypt, while Uzbekistan has announced the setting up of a 4-meter astronomical telescope. Pakistan has already announced scholarships for OIC students as part of its commitment to the plan. Several other participant including Malaysia and Saudi Arabia have agreed in principle and will announce their contributions after consultations with their bodies. Other Member States would submit details of their contributions to COMSTECH, within three months of initial call.
It was decided that monitoring of projects will be carried out by COMSTECH through various Working Groups and Thematic Advisory Groups. The meeting agreed to constitute a separate cell at COMSTECH for the effective and smooth implementation of the agenda. The decisions made in this meeting will be shared with all OIC Member States for their input and finalization within the next three months.
بسْمِ اللهِ الرَّحْمٰنِ الرَّحِيْمِﹺ
(In the name of Allah, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful)
45th OIC Council of Foreign Ministers: Dhaka Declaration-2018
Dated: 5-6 May, 2018
(20-21 Sha’aban1439 AH)
Venue: Dhaka, Bangladesh.
Dhaka Declaration Resolution No. 2: We, the Foreign Ministers and Heads of Delegations of Member-States of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), participants of the 45thSession of the Council of Foreign Ministers of the OIC held in Dhaka, on 5-6 May 2018, under the theme “Islamic Values for Sustainable Peace and Development”, declare as follows:
Dhaka Declaration Resolution No. 2: Recognizing the centrality of the OIC as a platform to strengthen mutually beneficial cooperation between the Member States in the political, security, economic, social, cultural, educational, environmental, humanitarian and other vital areas for sustainable development,
Resolution No. 3: Reaffirming the commitment of the Member States to the principles and objectives enshrined in the Charter of the OIC and OIC:2025 Program of Action and, in particular, the relevant provisions seeking to promote and enhance the bonds of unity and solidarity among the Member States and with Muslim Minorities and Communities,
Resolution No. 23: We call on the Member-States and relevant OIC institutions to continue and further expand their programs and activities in the field of higher education, science and technology and in particular in the framework of Educational exchange program, endeavor to improve training programs and courses, strengthen the links between higher educational institutions, promote joint scientific and research projects, establish scholarships and programs for technical and vocational training.
Globalization, Information & Communication Technology
Resolution No. 22: We note that with the existing realities of the 21st century, which is known to be the age of globalization, information & communication technology, the Internet, and growing competition in the world space, as well as the world market, priority attention must be given to increasing investments, development of human capital and building the capacities of women and the youth as the most important value and a decisive power in achieving the objectives of sustainable development, modernization and renewal.
Complementing the efforts of the Member-States in the Development of Science, Innovation and Technologies, promoting research
Resolution No. 28: We reaffirm the leading role of the Standing Committee on Scientific and Technological Cooperation (COMSTECH) in complementing the efforts of the Member-States in the development of science, innovation and technologies, promoting research and joint programs and call upon the Member States to actively implement the outcome of the OIC Summit on Science and Technology held last year in Astana, Kazakhstan.
Innovative Technologies
Resolution No. 29: We underline the importance of intra-OIC economic cooperation and sharing experience among OIC Member States in addressing the issues related to of economic slowdown, introducing the innovative technologies, forming a favorable investment and business climate, implementing the long term mutually beneficial projects in priority areas of cooperation and infrastructure development to transform our societies and commend the role being played by COMSTEC, IDB and other OIC Institutions in promoting intra OIC trade and exchange.
Islamic Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
The Islamic Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ISESCO) was founded by the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) in May 1979. With 52 member states, ISESCO is one of the largest international Islamic organizations and specializes in the fields of education, science, and culture. Its headquarters are in Rabat, Morocco. The Director General is Dr. Abdulaziz Othman Altwaijri, also Secretary General of Federation of the Universities of the Islamic World (FUIW).The Islamic Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (ISESCO), located in Rabat, Morocco.
According to the OIC, ISESCO's objectives are "to strengthen and promote cooperation among the Member States in the fields of education, science culture and communication; consolidate understanding among peoples inside and outside Member State; contribute to world peace and security through various means; publicize the true image of Islam and Islamic culture; promote dialogue among civilizations, cultures and religions; encourage cultural interaction and foster cultural diversity in the Member States, while preserving cultural identity and intellectual integrity.
ISESCO appoints an Islamic cultural capital of Asia, the Arab region and Africa, for each year. During the appointments for 2017, Deputy Director General Dr. Amina Al-Hajri explained that an Islamic cultural capital "must primarily be of documented historical authenticity, have an outstanding contribution to knowledge and learning that singles it out in the country and the region, a significant input in Islamic culture, and human culture in general." The three cities that are bearing the capital for 2017 are Mashhad, Iran for Asia, Amman, Jordan for the Arab region and Kampala, Uganda for Africa.
The Organization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) held its first science and technology summit at the level of head of state and government in Astana, Republic of Kazakhstan, on 10–11 September 2017.
Astana Summit was a historic milestone as it unified a collective position at the highest levels of decision-making in OIC Member States with a view to advancing the different fields of science, technology and innovation, while emphasizing the Muslim world’s resolve to promote scientific and technical development.
The Summit underscored the Member States’ support for scientific fields by demonstrating the Muslim world’s knowledge contributions away from the negative stereotypes that have become widespread recently.
The Summit is also of significance considering that Muslims constitute a quarter of the world population and their countries possess abundant natural resources, although many Islamic countries still suffer poverty and diseases. It is therefore imperative to address these challenges using available resources, especially as this Summit is only the starting point for finding solutions to the countless problems facing the Muslim world using science and technology. Statistics have shown that OIC Member States are below the 2016 innovation index general rate standing at 36.9, particularly in the areas of space, information technologies, pharmaceutical industries and electronics. Muslim countries, however, have a large youth population; a situation that imposes more challenges but also offers greater opportunities. The Summit could contribute to combating extremism and terrorism by reducing unemployment rates and attracting the youth to work in scientific and technological fields. It is worth mentioning that Member States’ interest in the areas of science and technology started since the 10th Islamic Summit held in Malaysia in 2003, the 3rd Extraordinary Islamic Summit in Makkah Al-Mukarramah which adopted the OIC 10-Year Programme of Action, and the 13th Islamic Summit Conference held in Istanbul in 2016, which launched the 2nd 10-Year Programme of Action 2016-2025. The 12th Islamic Summit held in Cairo in 2013 had mandated the OIC General Secretariat and the Standing Committee for Scientific and Technological Cooperation (COMSTECH) to organize the first Islamic summit on science and technology in the history of the OIC. All those summits emphasized the need to attach importance to the areas of science, technology and innovation for the development of socio-economic sectors in OIC countries.
Astana Declaration
The Astana Declaration is a policy guidance adopted by OIC members at the Astana Summit. The Astana Declaration commits members to increase investment in science and technology, education, eradicate extreme poverty, and implement UN Sustainable Development Goals.
ISESCO Journal of Science and Technology
ISESCO Journal of Science and Technology is the official journal of ISESCO Centre for Promotion of Scientific Research (ICPSR), affiliated to the Islamic Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ISESCO). The journal seeks to promote and disseminate knowledge of various topics in the fields of Science, Technology and Innovation. It presents to the international community important results of works in the fields of Biotechnology, Agriculture, Information Technology, GIS and Remote Sensing, Water Management, Medicine and Pharmaceuticals, Renewable Energy, Environmental Protection and Sustainable Development.
address:https://www.isesco.org.ma/ISESCO_Technology_Vision/
The journal also aims to help researchers, scientists and scientific institutions, to keep abreast with recent developments in scientific fields, in theory and applications, and provide solutions to current scientific issues in the world.
Through this journal, ISESCO is seeking to enhance communication between scientists and researchers from ISESCO Member States, while offering them an efficient medium to be known and recognized by the international scientific community. It is a platform for the exchange of knowledge and expertise to stimulate Scientific Research and strengthen the capacity of researchers in ISESCO Member states.
The Journal is published twice a year (in May and November) under the eISSN 2351-8340 and Print ISSN 2028-8077. It accepts original papers in the form of full technical papers, technical note, research studies and review papers in the fields of Science and Technology. All submitted papers are subject to review by highly qualified reviewers.
“We create value for Scientific Research”
OIC Ministerial Standing Committee on Scientific and Technological Cooperation (COMSTECH)
33-Constitution Avenue, G-5/2, Islamabad, Pakistan.
COMSTECH, the Ministerial Standing Committee on Scientific and Technological Cooperation of the OIC(Organization of Islamic Cooperation) established by the Third Islamic Summit of OIC held at Makkah, Saudi Arabia in January 1981. The President of Pakistan is Chairman of COMSTECH. The core mandate of COMSTECH is to strengthen cooperation among OIC Member States in science and technology (S&T), and enhance their capabilities through training in emerging areas, undertake follow-up-actions and implementation of the resolutions of the OIC, and to draw up programs and submit proposals designed to increase the capability of the Muslim countries in science and technology (S&T). The ultimate aim is to build and nourish a scientific culture in addition to using S&T as a major contributor to socio-economic development and rapid industrialization.
The objectives of COMSTECH include
I. Assessment of human and material resources of Member States and identification of scientific and technological needs and requirements of the Ummah,
II. Building indigenous capabilities of Member States in the fields of science and technology through cooperation and mutual assistance,
III. Enhancement of cooperation and coordination in scientific and technological fields amongst the OIC member states with a view to achieving collective competence in science and technology for solution of the problems of the OIC member states,
and
IV. Creation of an effective institutional structure for planning, research, development and monitoring of scientific and technological activities at national, regional, and international levels.
Executive Summary
The OIC Ministerial Standing Committee on Scientific and Technological Cooperation (COMSTECH) was established by the Third Islamic Summit held at Makkah, Saudi Arabia, in January 1981. Behind its set-up were the objectives toundertake follow up actions and implementation of the OIC resolutions, and to contribute towards strengthening the science and technology (S&T) capacity of the OIC member states through mutual cooperation, collaboration and networking ofresources. Since its inception, COMSTECH has taken many initiatives for the promotion of S&T in the OIC member states. Some of these programmes include research grants, training courses, travel support, institution building, establishment of Inter-IslamicNetworks, Literature Search Service, etc. It also initiated a number of other activities
summarized in Section 4 of this document. One of these is the establishment of COMSTECH Science, Technology & Innovation (STI) Policy Research Training Centre in 2006.
A major focus of COMSTECH has been on human resource development. Through joint research grants programmes with International Foundation for Science (IFS), Islamic Scientific, Educational and Cultural Organization (ISESCO), The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS), The Eastern Mediterranean Regional Office of the World Health Organization (WHO/EMRO), and Inter-Islamic Network on Water Resources Development and Management (INWRDAM), COMSTECH has awarded US$ 6.596 million to 660 projects during 1998-2017. Figure 1 gives details of the grants to various OIC member states, and Figure 2 depicts year-wise distribution of
these grants. Fig.1. Joint reaserach grants of COMSTECH with EMRO-WHO, IFS, ISESCO, TWAS and INWRDAM awarded during 1998-2017 to various OIC member states. In parentheses are numbers of the projects supported.
COMSTECH initiated a program of offering training courses/thematic workshops in 2006. Under this, 74 courses were organized in cutting edge fields of S&T and trained 2,078 participants from 32 OIC member states. Some 637 experts, including 195 from abroad, volunteered to act as resource persons. In parallel with this series of thematic workshops, the STI Centre of COMSTECH also organized regular training courses and workshops spanning 3 days to 4 weeks. Since 2006, 23 of these trained 680 participants including 278 from OIC member states. The 145 resource persons who conducted these training courses included 67 experts from
abroad. Along with these workshops and training courses, COMSTECH also organized three
international conferences.
COMSTECH works in close collaboration with various Standing Committees and other organs of the OIC, Member States of the OIC and their major Scientific and Technological Institutions, in addition to some international organizations. The latter include The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS), Islamic Scientific, Educational and Cultural Organization (ISESCO), Islamic World Academy of Sciences (IAS), Islamic Development Bank (IDB), Global Environment Facility (GEF), United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), United Nations Development Program (UNDP), International Foundation for Science, Stockholm (IFS), Eastern Mediterranean Regional Office of the World Health Organization (WHO–EMRO). In addition protocols are being prepared for collaboration with the Lindau Council and IIASA in the EU
.
.
Islamic University Bangladesh:
Islamic University is ranked as one of the top public universities in Bangladesh as well as the largest seat of higher education in the south-western part of the country. Situated 24 kilometers south of Kushtia and 22 kilometers north of Jhenidah district-town, the university is by-passed by Khulna-Kushtia National Highway which provides its lifeline of connectivity with the rest of the country. The passing of the Islamic University Act in 1980 conferred this institution the permanent prestige of being the first university established after the independence of Bangladesh, reflecting the hope and aspiration of the new nation striving to be on par with other international players through thepromotion of science, business, humanities, and interfaith dialogue.
By now, Islamic university has been exceptionally renowned as the major international center for theological, general, applied science and engineering studies. The university addresses the needs of both the local and foreign students, facilitating them with a broad spectrum of undergraduate studies and postgraduate research and teaching. In this way, the university seeks to promote understanding of the rich cultural diversity of humankind in order to prepare students to go forth with wisdom, skills, and knowledge to serve and advance the communities in which they live and work.
The main objective for establishing Islamic University is "to provide for instruction in theology and other fields of Islamic Studies and comparative jurisprudence and such other branches of learning at Graduate and Postgraduate level as the University may think fit and make provision for research including Post-Doctorate research and training for the advancement and dissemination of knowledge" [Clause 5(a), The Islamic University Act 1980(37)]
Faculties and Departments
At present the university offers a wide range of academic programs through its 33 full-fledged departments under five faculties and one self-contained Institute of Islamic Education and Research (IIER). The government-approved recent organogram of the university sets out to operate 59 departments under 8 faculties and 3 self-contained Institutes. The faculty-wise distribution of departments is as follows:
Faculty of Sciences
(1) Department of Mathematics
(2) Department of Statistics
(3) Department of environmental Science and Geography
Faculty of Engineering and Technology
(1) Department of Electric and Electronic Engineering
(2) Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
(3) Department of Computer Science and Engineering
(4) Department of Information and Communication Engineering
Faculty of Biological Sciences
1) Department of Applied Nutrition and Food Technology
(2) Department of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering
(3) Department of Pharmacy
Institute
(1) Institute of Islamic Education and Research (IIER)
Faculty of Theology and Islamic Studies
(1) Department of Al-Quran and Islamic Studies
(2) Department of Al-Hadit and Islamic Studies
(3) Department of Dawah and Islamic Studies
Faculty of Arts
(1) Department of Arabic Language and Literature
(2) Department of Bengali
(3) Department of English
(4) Department of Islamic History and Culture
(5) Department of Folklore Studies.
Faculty of Social Sciences
(1) Department of Economics
(2) Department of Political Science
(3) Department of Public Administration
(4) Department of Development Studies
(5) Department of Social Welfare
Faculty of Law
(1) Department of Law
(2) Department of al Fiqh & Legal Studies
(3) Department of Law and Land Management
Faculty of Business Administration
(1) Department of Accounting and Information Systems
(2) Department of Management
(3) Department of Finance
(4) Department of Marketing
(5) Department of Tourism and Hospitality
(6) Department of Human Resource Management
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Faculty of Sciences
(1) Department of Mathematics
(2) Department of Statistics
(3) Department of environmental Science and Geography
Faculty of Engineering and Technology
(1) Department of Electric and Electronic Engineering
(2) Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
(3) Department of Computer Science and Engineering
(4) Department of Information and Communication Engineering
Faculty of Biological Sciences
1) Department of Applied Nutrition and Food Technology
(2) Department of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering
(3) Department of Pharmacy
Institute
(1) Institute of Islamic Education and Research (IIER)
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Confucius Institute at University of Dhaka
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Europe Stands on Knowledge, Science
& Technology
Roman Empire
(Courtesy of Wikipedia, Encyclopedia)
Capital
|
The Roman Empire (Latin: Imperium Rōmānum, Classical Latin: [ɪmˈpɛ.ri.ũː roːˈmaː.nũː]; Koine and Medieval Greek: Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων, tr. Basileia tōn Rhōmaiōn) was the post-Roman Republic period of the ancient Roman civilization, with a government headed byemperors and large territorial holdings around the Mediterranean Sea in Europe, Africa and Asia. The city of Rome was the largest city in the world c. 100 BC – c. AD 400, with Constantinople (New Rome) becoming the largest around AD 500,[5][6] and the Empire's population grew to an estimated 50 to 90 million inhabitants (roughly 20% of the world's population at the time).[n 7][7] The 500-year-old republic which preceded it had been severely destabilized in a series of civil wars and political conflict, during which Julius Caesar was appointed as perpetual dictator and then assassinated in 44 BC. Civil wars and executions continued, culminating in the victory of Octavian, Caesar's adopted son, over Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC and the annexation of Egypt. Octavian's power was then unassailable and in 27 BC the Roman Senate formally granted him overarching power and the new title Augustus, effectively marking the end of the Roman Republic.
The Roman Empire was among the most powerful economic, cultural, political and military forces in the world of its time. It was one of the largest empires in world history. At its height under Trajan, it covered 5 million square kilometres. It held sway over an estimated 70 million people, at that time 21% of the world's entire population. The longevity and vast extent of the empire ensured the lasting influence of Latin and Greek language, culture, religion, inventions, architecture, philosophy, law and forms of government over the empire's descendants.
Ancient Roman civilisation has contributed to modern government, law, politics, engineering, art, literature, architecture, technology, warfare, religion, language, and society.
Greece in the Roman era
(Courtesy of Wikipedia, Encyclopedia)
Greece in the Roman era describes the period of Greek history when it was dominated by the Roman republic, the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empire (collectively, the Roman era). It began with the Roman victory over the Corinthians, at the Battle of Corinth (146 BC). It continued with the adoption of the city of Byzantium by the Emperor Constantine the Great as the capital of the Roman Empire (as Nova Roma, later Constantinople) in AD 330. After this date, the Eastern Empire became largely Greek speaking.
Early Roman history
The Greek peninsula first came under Roman rule in 146 BC after the Battle of Corinth when Macedonia became a Roman province, while southern Greece came under the surveillance of Macedonia's prefect. However, some Greek poleis managed to maintain partial independence and avoid taxation. The Kingdom of Pergamon was in principle added to this territory in 133 BC when King Attalus III left his territories to the Roman people in his will.[1] However, the Romans were slow in securing their claim and Aristonicus led a revolt with the help of Blossius. This was put down in 129 BC, when Pergamon was divided among Rome, Pontus, and Cappadocia.
Athens and other Greek cities revolted in 88 BC, and the uprising was crushed by the Roman general Sulla. The Roman civil wars devastated the land even further, until Augustus organized the peninsula as the province of Achaea in 27 BC.
Greece, initially economically devastated, began to rise economically after the wars. The Greek cities of Asia Minor recovered more quickly at first than the cities on the Greek peninsula, which were heavily damaged by the forces of Sulla. The Romans invested heavily however, and rebuilt these cities. Corinth became the capital of the new province of Achaea, while Athens prospered as a center of philosophy and learning.
Life in Greece continued under the Roman Empire much the same as it had previously. Roman culture was highly influenced by the Greeks; asHorace said, Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit ("Captive Greece captured her rude conqueror") [2]. The epics of Homer inspired the Aeneid ofVirgil, and authors such as Seneca the younger wrote using Greek styles. While some Roman nobles regarded the Greeks as backwards and petty, many others embraced Greek literature and philosophy. The Greek language became a favorite of the educated and elite in Rome, such as Scipio Africanus, who tended to study philosophy and regard Greek culture and science.
The term Ancient, or Archaic, Greece refers to the time three centuries before the classical age, between 800 B.C. and 500 B.C.—a relatively sophisticated period in world history. Archaic Greece saw advances in art, poetry and technology.
Science and technology in Europe
The Antikythera mechanism was an analog computer from 150–100 BC designed to calculate the positions of astronomical objects.
Ancient Greek mathematics contributed many important developments to the field of mathematics, including the basic rules of geometry, the idea of formal mathematical proof, and discoveries in number theory, mathematical analysis, applied mathematics, and approached close to establishing integral calculus. The discoveries of several Greek mathematicians, including Pythagoras, Euclid, and Archimedes, are still used in mathematical teaching today.
The Greeks developed astronomy, which they treated as a branch of mathematics, to a highly sophisticated level. The first geometrical, three-dimensional models to explain the apparent motion of the planets were developed in the 4th century BC by Eudoxus of Cnidus and Callippus of Cyzicus. Their younger contemporary Heraclides Ponticus proposed that the Earth rotates around its axis. In the 3rd century BC Aristarchus of Samos was the first to suggest a heliocentric system. Archimedes in his treatise The Sand Reckoner revives Aristarchus' hypothesis that "the fixed stars and the Sun remain unmoved, while the Earth revolves about the Sun on the circumference of a circle". Otherwise, only fragmentary descriptions of Aristarchus' idea survive.[78] Eratosthenes, using the angles of shadows created at widely separated regions, estimated the circumference of the Earth with great accuracy.[ In the 2nd century BC Hipparchus of Nicea made a number of contributions, including the first measurement of precession and the compilation of the first star catalog in which he proposed the modern system of apparent magnitudes.
The Antikythera mechanism, a device for calculating the movements of planets, dates from about 80 BC, and was the first ancestor of the astronomical computer. It was discovered in an ancient shipwreck off the Greek island of Antikythera, between Kythera and Crete. The device became famous for its use of a differential gear, previously believed to have been invented in the 16th century, and the miniaturization and complexity of its parts, comparable to a clock made in the 18th century. The original mechanism is displayed in the Bronze collection of the National Archaeological Museum of Athens, accompanied by a replica.
The ancient Greeks also made important discoveries in the medical field. Hippocrates was a physician of the Classical period, and is considered one of the most outstanding figures in the history of medicine. He is referred to as the "father of medicine"[80][81] in recognition of his lasting contributions to the field as the founder of the Hippocratic school of medicine. This intellectual school revolutionized medicine in ancient Greece, establishing it as a discipline distinct from other fields that it had traditionally been associated with (notably theurgy and philosophy), thus making medicine a profession.
Ancient Greece
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
12th/9th century BC–c. 600 AD
Ancient Greece (Greek: Ελλάς, translit. Ellas) was a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history from the Greek Dark Ages of the 12th–9th centuries BC to the end of antiquity (c. AD 600). Immediately following this period was the beginning of the Early Middle Ages and the Byzantine era. Roughly three centuries after the Late Bronze Age collapse of Mycenaean Greece, Greek urbanpoleis began to form in the 8th century BC, ushering in the Archaic period and colonization of the Mediterranean Basin. This was followed by the period of Classical Greece, an era that began with the Greco-Persian Wars, lasting from the 5th to 4th centuries BC. Due to the conquests by Alexander the Great of Macedonia, Hellenistic civilization flourished from Central Asia to the western end of the Mediterranean Sea. The Hellenistic period came to an end with the conquests and annexations of the eastern Mediterranean world by the Roman Republic, which established the Roman province of Macedonia in Roman Greece, and later the province of Achaea during the Roman Empire Classical Greek culture, especially philosophy, had a powerful influence on ancient Rome, which carried a version of it to many parts of the Mediterranean Basin and Europe. For this reason, Classical Greece is generally considered to be the seminal culture which provided the foundation of modern Western culture and is considered the cradle of Western civilization.[2][3][4]
Classical Greek culture gave a lot of importance to knowledge. Science and religion were not separate and getting closer to the truth meant getting closer to the gods. In this context, they understood the importance of mathematics as an instrument for obtaining more reliable ("divine") knowledge.[5] Greek culture, in a few centuries and with a limited population, managed to explore and make progress in many fields of science, mathematics, philosophy and knowledge in general.
During the second and third centuries, Greece was divided into provinces including Achaea, Macedonia, Epirus and Thrace. During the reign of Diocletian in the late 3rd century, Moesia was organized as a diocese, and was ruled by Galerius. Under Constantine (who professed Christianity) Greece was part of the prefectures of Macedonia and Thrace. Theodosius divided the prefecture of Macedonia into the provinces of Creta,Achaea, Thessalia, Epirus Vetus, Epirus Nova, and Macedonia. The Aegean islands formed the province of Insulae in the Diocese of Asia.
Greece faced invasions from the Heruli, Goths, and Vandals during the reign of Romulus Augustulus. Stilicho, who pretented he was a regent for Arcadius, evacuated Thessaly when theVisigoths invaded in the late 4th century. Arcadius' chief advisor Eutropius allowed Alaric to enter Greece, and he looted Athens, Corinth and the Peloponnese. Stilicho eventually drove him out around 397 and Alaric was made magister militum in Illyricum. Eventually, Alaric and the Goths migrated to Italy, sacked Rome in 410, and built the Visigothic Kingdom in Iberia, which lasted until 711 with the advent of the Arabs.
Great Britain
University of Oxford
Divisions of the University of Oxford
(Courtesy of Wikipedia Encyclopedia)
The various academic faculties, departments, and institutes of the University of Oxford are organised into four divisions, each with its own Head and elected board. They are the Humanities Division; the Social Sciences Division; the Mathematical, Physical and Life Sciences Division; and the Medical Sciences Division.
Medical Sciences Division
Medicine has been taught at the University of Oxford since the 13th century.[7][8] In 1770, John Radcliffe, an Oxford-educated physician founded the Radcliffe Infirmary.[7] The current Head of the division is Gavin Screaton.
The Division contains the following Faculties and departments
· Nuffield Department of Surgical Sciences
The Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies
The Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies (OCIS) is a Recognised Independent Centre of the University of Oxford, England. It was established in 1985 with the aim of encouraging the academic study of Islam and the Muslim world. The centre's patron is Prince Charles.[1][2] Since 2010, the dean of scholars has been Judith English
A new building for the centre is situated to the east of central Oxford on Marston Road. The building blends the architecture of traditional Oxford colleges with a classical Islamic style. It includes a mosque with a striking dome and minaret, a new addition to the famous Oxford skyline.
Present and former fellows:
*C.W.E: Courtesy of Wikipedia-Encyclopedia.
*R.P: Related Portion.
University of Cambridge
The University of Cambridge (informally Cambridge University)[note 1] is a collegiate public research university in Cambridge, England. Founded in 1209 and granted a Royal Charter by King Henry III in 1231, Cambridge is the second-oldest university in the English-speaking world and the world's fourth-oldest surviving university.[9] The university grew out of an association of scholars who left the University of Oxford after a dispute with the townspeople.[10] The two medieval universities share many common features and are often referred to jointly as "Oxbridge". The history and influence of the University of Cambridge has made it one of the most prestigious universities in the world.[11]
Cambridge is formed from a variety of institutions which include 31 constituent Colleges and over 100 academic departments organised into six schools. Cambridge University Press, a department of the university, is the world's oldest publishing house and the second-largest university press in the world. The university also operates eight cultural and scientific museums, including the Fitzwilliam Museum, as well as a botanic garden. Cambridge's libraries hold a total of around 15 million books, eight million of which are in Cambridge University Library, a legal deposit library.
In the fiscal year ending 31 July 2017, the university had a total income of £1.71 billion, of which £458 million was from research grants and contracts.[2] The central university and colleges have a combined endowment of around £4.9 billion, the second largest of any university in the UK.[12] The university is closely linked with the development of the high-tech business cluster known as "Silicon Fen". It is a member of numerous associations and forms part of the "golden triangle" of leading English universities and Cambridge University Health Partners, anacademic health science centre.
As of September 2017, Cambridge is ranked the world's second best university by the Times Higher Education World University Rankings,[13]and is ranked 3rd worldwide by Academic Ranking of World Universities, 6th by QS, and 7th by US News. According to the Times Higher Education ranking, no other institution in the world ranks in the top 10 for as many subjects. The university has educated many notable alumni, including eminent mathematicians, scientists, politicians, lawyers, philosophers, writers, actors and foreign Heads of State. As of August 2018, 116 Nobel Laureates, 11 Fields Medalists, 6 Turing Award winners and 15 British Prime Ministers have been affiliated with Cambridge as students, alumni, faculty or research staff.[18]
By the late 12th century, the Cambridge region already had a scholarly and ecclesiastical reputation, due to monks from the nearby bishopric church of Ely. However, it was an incident at Oxford which is most likely to have formed the establishment of the university: two Oxford scholars were hanged by the town authorities for the death of a woman, without consulting the ecclesiastical authorities, who would normally take precedence (and pardon the scholars) in such a case, but were at that time in conflict with King John. The University of Oxford went into suspension in protest, and most scholars moved to cities such as Paris, Reading, and Cambridge. After the University of Oxford reformed several years later, enough scholars remained in Cambridge to form the nucleus of the new university.] In order to claim precedence, it is common for Cambridge to trace its founding to the 1231 charter from King Henry III granting it the right to discipline its own members (ius non-trahi extra) and an exemption from some taxes (Oxford would not receive a similar enhancement until 1248).
Knowledge, Science and Technology in Germany
(Courtesy of Wikipedia-Encyclopedia)
Germany's achievements in science and technology have been very significant and research and development efforts form an integral part of the country's economy. Germany has been the home of some of the most prominent researchers in various scientific disciplines, notably physics, mathematics, chemistryand engineering. Before World War II, Germany had generated more Nobel laureates in scientific fields than any other nation. It compelled as best country in the natural sciences.
Scientific research in the country is supported by industry, by the network of German universities and by scientific state-institutions such as the Max Planck Society and the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft. The raw output of scientific research from Germany consistently ranks among the world's best. Germany was named the second most innovative country in the world in the 2015 Bloomberg Innovation Index, and consistently manages to be in the top three.
Scientific fields
Physics
The work of Albert Einstein and Max Planck was crucial to the foundation of modern physics, which Werner Heisenberg and Erwin Schrödingerdeveloped further.[7] They were preceded by such key physicists as Hermann von Helmholtz, Joseph von Fraunhofer, and Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit, among others. Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen discovered X-rays, an accomplishment that made him the first winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1901and eventually earned him an element name, roentgenium. Heinrich Rudolf Hertz's work in the domain of electromagnetic radiation were pivotal to the development of modern telecommunication.[9] Mathematical aerodynamics was developed in Germany, especially by Ludwig Prandtl.
Paul Forman in 1971 argued the remarkable scientific achievements in quantum physics were the cross-product of the hostile intellectual atmosphere whereby many scientists rejected Weimar Germany and Jewish scientists, revolts against causality, determinism and materialism, and the creation of the revolutionary new theory of quantum mechanics. The scientists adjusted to the intellectual environment by dropping Newtonian causality from quantum mechanics, thereby opening up an entirely new and highly successful approach to physics. The "Forman Thesis" has generated an intense debate among historians of science.
Chemistry
At the start of the 20th century, Germany garnered fourteen of the first thirty-one Nobel Prizes in Chemistry, starting with Hermann Emil Fischer in 1902 and until Carl Bosch and Friedrich Bergius in 1931.[8]
Otto Hahn is considered a pioneer of radioactivity and radiochemistry with the discovery of nuclear fission in 1938, the scientific and technological basis of atomic energy.
The bio-chemist Adolf Butenandt independently worked out the molecular structure of the primary male sex hormone of testosterone and was the first to successfully synthesize it from cholesterol in 1935.
Engineering
Germany has been the home of many famous inventors and engineers, such as Johannes Gutenberg, who is credited with the invention of movable type printing in Europe; Hans Geiger, the creator of the Geiger counter; and Konrad Zuse, who built the first electronic computer. German inventors, engineers and industrialists such as Zeppelin, Daimler, Diesel, Otto, Wankel, Von Braun and Benz helped shape modern automotive and air transportation technology including the beginnings of space travel. The engineer Otto Lilienthal laid some of the fundamentals for the science ofaviation.
Biological and earth sciences
Ferdinand Cohn, Robert Koch and Rudolph Virchow, three key figures in microbiology, were from Germany. Alexander von Humboldt's (1769–1859) work as a natural scientist and explorer was foundational to biogeography.[16] Wladimir Köppen (1846–1940) was an eclectic Russian-bornbotanist and climatologist who synthesized global relationships between climate, vegetation and soil types into a classification system that is used, with some modifications, to this day.[17] Alfred Wegener (1880–1930), a similarly interdisciplinary scientist, was one of the first people to hypothesize the theory of continental drift which was later developed into the overarching geological theory of plate tectonics.
Psychology
Wilhelm Wundt is credited with the establishment of psychology as an independent empirical science through his construction of the first laboratory at the University of Leipzig in 1879.
Humanities
Besides natural sciences, German researchers have added much to the development of humanities. Contemporary examples are the philosopher Jürgen Habermas, the egyptologist Jan Assmann, the sociologist Niklas Luhmann, the historian Reinhart Koselleck and the legal historian Michael Stolleis. In order to promote the international visibility of research in these fields a new prize, Geisteswissenschaften International, was established in 2008. It serves the translation of studies in humanities into English.
List of Universities of Technology in Germany
Universities of Technology
COMSTECH-Lindau Nobel Laureate, German: World Building Relationship.
The Lindau Nobel Laureate Meetings were started under the patronage of former German President Horst Köhler, and are funded by the Robert Bosch Stiftung and the Bunderministerium für wirtschaftliche Zusammenarbeit. Participation in the meetings is highly prestigious and it is a unique opportunity for most promising young scientists to enhance their knowledge, establish new contacts and discuss relevant topics. Currently about 600 highly talented young scientists attend these meetings every year.
The Lindau Meetings provide a globally recognized forum and more than 200 Nobel Laureates are Members of Founders’ Assembly for the transfer of knowledge between generations of scientists, about 30 Nobel Laureates convene at Lindau to meet the next generation of scientists. The most exciting feature of the event is Lectures by Nobel Laureates on current scientific topics and relevant fields of research of the future. In panel discussions, seminars, and various events of the social programme, young researchers nominated by a worldwide network of Academic Partners like COMSTECH get the opportunity to directly interact with Nobel Laureates and benefit from their lectures. COMSTECH nominates 20 candidates for meetings on Natural Sciences and 15 candidates for meeting on Economics held at Lindau, under the agreement signed between COMSTECH and Lindau Council of Nobel Laureates in 2015. Final selection of candidates is made by scientific review panel of the Nobel Laureate Meetings. The scientific programme of each Lindau Meeting is based on the principle of dialogue. The different sessions – lectures, discussions, master classes, and panel discussions – are designed to activate the exchange of knowledge, ideas, and experience between and among Nobel Laureates and young scientists.
Applicants who have successfully mastered the application process undoubtedly represent the emerging generation of leading scientists and researchers. Apart from taking the one-time chance to participate in a Lindau Meeting, these young scientists become part of a special community – a network of excellence. As alumni of the Lindau Meetings, former participants stay connected with each other and become ambassadors of the scientific dialogue fostered by the Lindau Meetings. In order to participate in a meeting, they have to pass a multi-step application and selection process. The participants are recruited among: i) under-graduate students, ii) master and
Doctoral students, and iii) young post-doctoral scientists in both meetings. The process of application and selection is administered with the web-based system NAPERS. It is intended to have a good balance between these three groups:
i. Undergraduate students, who exhibit a solid general knowledge in physiology or medicine have done some practical work and/or have laboratory experience.
ii. Master and doctoral students, who show excellent academic accomplishments and have produced some very good research work and/or are in medical clinical training.
iii. Postdoctoral scientists, who have up to 5 years of postdoctoral experience
(optimum about 2-3 years after doctoral degree), have published results of their own scientific research in peer-reviewed journals, preferably as first author, and have presented their work at international scientific meetings, preferably as lecturers. Eligibility: Candidates with the following selection criteria are eligible to participate in the meetings:
Must not be older than 35 years of age or younger at the time of meeting.Ø
Be fluent in English and capable of active participation in discussions.Ø
Belong to the top 5% of their class.Ø
Show a genuine interest in science and research.Ø
Show a strong commitment to their principal field of study and to interdisciplinary work.Ø
Who have not participated in the previous Lindau meetingsØ
Who have not yet a permanent position (scientists with permanent position –in particular onØ
the professor level – will not be admitted to the meeting).
Receive strong support of their application by their academic advisor and/ or by theØ
international renowned scientists, through a detailed letter of recommendation, which greatly
influence the evaluation. For those in medical clinical training, two letters of recommendation
would be helpful – one from a scientist’s mentor and one from a medical mentor.
Selection: After scrutiny at COMSTECH, names of suitable candidates are to be forwarded to the Lindau Council in Germany for final decision. In view of the strict deadlines by the Lindau, nominations received after the deadlines are not entertained. The award includes economy class return air ticket and €5000 Registration Fee and Accommodation Charges per selected candidate for one week in Lindau. COMSTECH has so far supported 17 young scientists and scholars from Algeria, Egypt, Iran, Jordan, Palestine, Saudi Arabia, Senegal, Sudan, Suriname, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan.
01 Dr. Khassan Karimov, Physical Technical Institute, Academy of Sciences, Dushanbe, Tajikistan: Ishaq Khan Institute for Engineering Sciences and Technology, Topi, N.W.F.P., Pakistan- 400
02 Dr. M. D. Khalilur Rahman, Professor, Department of Biotechnology, University of Dhaka, Dhaka-1000, Bangladesh: Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine & Health Science,
03 i) Dr. Parvin Paslar, Assistant Professor, Biochemistry Department, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran: Dr. A. Q. Khan Research, Laboratories, Biotechnology Division, Mauve Area, G-9/4, Islamabad, Pakistan.
04 i) Mr. Mustanser Jehangir, Head TIDG, NCD, Nuclear Chemistry Division, PINSTECH,Nilore, Islamabad, Pakistan: Syrian Atomic Energy Commission, Damascus, Damascus, Syria, 15 Sep. 1999.
05 i) Prof. Madya Dr. Saleem Mustafa, Borneo Marine Research Unit, University Malaysia Sabah, Malaysia: United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, U. A. E.
03 Mr. Mohammad Anwar, Assistant Professor, Department of Chemistry University of Balochistan, Quetta, Pakistan: “Protein Folding, Structure and Design” from 11-22 June 2001 in Trieste, Italy.
Knowledge, Science & Technology inUnited States of America
The United States of America came into being around the Age of Enlightenment (1685 to 1815), an era in Western philosophy in which writers and thinkers, rejecting the perceived superstitions of the past, instead chose to emphasize the intellectual, scientific and cultural life, centered upon the 18th century, in which reason was advocated as the primary source for legitimacy and authority. Enlightenment philosophersenvisioned a "republic of science," where ideas would be exchanged freely and useful knowledge would improve the lot of all citizens.
The United States Constitution itself reflects the desire to encourage scientific creativity. It gives the United States Congress the power "to promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries."[1] This clause formed the basis for the U.S. patent and copyright systems, whereby creators of original art and technology would get a government granted monopoly, which after a limited period would become free to all citizens, thereby enriching thepublic domain.
Early American science
In the early decades of its history, the United States was relatively isolated from Europe and also rather poor. At this stage America's scientific infrastructure was still quite primitive compared to the long-established societies, institutes, and universities in Europe.
Two of America's founding fathers were scientists of some repute. Benjamin Franklin conducted a series of experiments that deepened human understanding of electricity. Among other things, he proved what had been suspected but never before shown: that lightning is a form of electricity. Franklin also invented such conveniences as bifocal eyeglasses. Franklin also conceived the mid-room furnace, the "Franklin Stove." However, Franklin's design was flawed, in that his furnace vented the smoke from its base: because the furnace lacked a chimney to "draw" fresh air up through the central chamber, the fire would soon go out. It took David R. Rittenhouse, another hero of early Philadelphia, to improve Franklin's design by adding an L-shaped exhaust pipe that drew air through the furnace and vented its smoke up and along the ceiling, then into an intramural chimney and out of the house.
Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826), was among the most influential leaders in early America; during the American Revolutionary War (1775–83), Jefferson served in the Virginia legislature, the Continental Congress, was governor of Virginia, later serving as U.S. minister to France, U.S. secretary of state, vice president under John Adams (1735-1826), writer of the Declaration of Independence and the third U.S. president. During Jefferson’s two terms in office (1801-1809), the U.S. purchased the Louisiana Territory and Lewis and Clark explored the vast new acquisition. After leaving office, he retired to his Virginia plantation, Monticello, and helped spearhead the University of Virginia.[4] Jefferson was also a student of agriculture who introduced various types of rice, olive trees, and grasses into the New World. He stressed the scientific aspect of the Lewis and Clark expedition (1804–06),[5] which explored the Pacific Northwest, and detailed, systematic information on the region's plants and animals was one of that expedition's legacies.
D-8 Organization for Economic Cooperation
A Brief Description of Contribution of Muslim in Science & Technology
*Roman Numeral:
Asia Stands on Knowledge,
Science & Technology
Knowledge Science and Technology in India
Courtesy of Wikipedia, Encyclopedia
After independence, Jawaharlal Nehru initiated reforms to promote higher education, science and technology in India. The Indian Institute of Technology(IIT) – conceived by a 22-member committee of scholars and entrepreneurs in order to promote technical education – was inaugurated on 18 August 1951 at Kharagpur in West Bengal by the minister of education Maulana Abul Kalam Azad.[3] More IITs were soon opened in Bombay, Madras, Kanpur and Delhi as well in the late 1950s and early 1960s. Beginning in the 1960s, close ties with the Soviet Union enabled the Indian Space Research Organisation to rapidly develop the Indian space program and advance nuclear power in India even after the first nuclear test explosion by India on 18 May 1974 at Pokhran.
India accounts for about 10% of all expenditure on research and development in Asia and the number of scientific publications grew by 45% over the five years to 2007.[citation needed] However, according to former Indian science and technology minister Kapil Sibal, India is lagging in science and technology compared to developed countries.[4] India has only 140 researchers per 1,000,000 population, compared to 4,651 in the United States.[4] India invested US$3.7 billion in science and technology in 2002–2003.[5] For comparison, China invested about four times more than India, while the United States invested approximately 75 times more than India on science and technology.[5] The highest-ranked Indian university for engineering and technology in 2014 was the Indian Institute of Technology Bombay at number 16;[6] natural science ranks lower.[7] One study argued that Indian science did not suffer from lack of funds but from unethical practices, the urge to make illegal money, immense misuse of power, frivolous publications and patents, faulty promotion policies, victimisation for speaking against wrong or corrupt practices
While India has increased its output of scientific papers fourfold between 2000 and 2015 overtaking Russia and France in absolute number of papers per year, that rate has been exceeded by China and Brazil; Indian papers generate fewer cites than average, and relative to its population it has few scientists.[8] Based on the index of ISI indexed articles in India in 2017, it ranked 6th with 83,074 scientific papers, while this rating is far higher based on the number of articles per population.[9] According to StatNano's 2017 report, India's rank in this indicator in the field of nanotechnology is third in the world after China and USA, which points to its focus on this technology.[10]
Science and Technology
·India ink: Known in Asia since the third millennia BCE, and used in India since at least the 4th century BCE.[33] Masi, an early ink in India was an admixture of several chemical components.,[33] with the carbon black from which India ink is produced obtained by burning bones, tar, pitch, and other substances.[34][35][35][36] Documents dating to the 3rd century CE, written in Kharosthi, with ink have been unearthed in East Turkestan, Xinjiang.[37] The practice of writing with ink and a sharp pointed needle was common in ancient South India.[38]Several Jain sutras in India were compiled in ink.[39]
· Iron and mercury coherer: In 1899, the Bengali physicist Sir Jagdish Chandra Bose announced the development of an "iron-mercury-iron coherer with telephone detector" in a paper presented at the Royal Society, London.[40] He also later received U.S. Patent 755,840, "Detector for electrical disturbances" (1904), for a specific electromagnetic receiver.
·
Computer science and Programming in India
· Simputer:The Simputer (acronym for "simple, inexpensive and multilingual people's computer") is a self-contained, open hardware handheld computer, designed for use in environments where computing devices such as personal computers are deemed inconvenient. It was developed in 1999 by 7 scientists of the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, led by Dr. Swami Manohar in collaboration with Encore India, a company based inBangalore.[240] Originally envisaged to bring internet to the masses of India, the Simputer and its derivatives are today widely utilized by governments of several Indian states as part of their e-governance drive, the Indian Army, as well as by other public and private organizations.
·
Computers and programming languages
· J. Sharp: Visual J# (pronounced "jay-sharp") programming language was a transitional language for programmers of Java and Visual J++ languages, so they could use their existing knowledge and applications on .NET Framework. It was developed by the Hyderabad-based Microsoft India Development Center at HITEC City in India.
· Kojo: Kojo is a programming language and integrated development environment (IDE) for computer programming and learning. Kojo is an open-source software. It was created, and is actively developed, by Lalit Pant, a computer programmer and teacher living in Dehradun, India.
· Microwave Communication: The first public demonstration of microwave transmission was made by Jagadish Chandra Bose, in Calcutta, in 1895, two years before a similar demonstration by Marconi in England, and just a year after Oliver Lodge's commemorative lecture on Radio communication, following Hertz's death. Bose's revolutionary demonstration forms the foundation of the technology used in mobile telephony, radars, satellite communication, radios, television broadcast, WiFi, remote controls and countless other applications.
Mathematics
· AKS primality test: The AKS primality test is a deterministic primality-proving algorithm created and published by threeIndian Institute of Technology Kanpur computer scientists, Manindra Agrawal, Neeraj Kayal, and Nitin Saxena on 6 August 2002 in a paper titled PRIMES is in P.[126][127] Commenting on the impact of this discovery, Paul Leyland noted: "One reason for the excitement within the mathematical community is not only does this algorithm settle a long-standing problem, it also does so in a brilliantly simple manner. Everyone is now wondering what else has been similarly overlooked".[127][128]
· Finite Difference Interpolation: The Indian mathematician Brahmagupta presented what is possibly the first instance[129][130]of finite difference interpolation around 665 CE.[131]
· Algebraic abbreviations: The mathematician Brahmagupta had begun using abbreviations for unknowns by the 7th century.[132] He employed abbreviations for multiple unknowns occurring in one complex problem.[132] Brahmagupta also used abbreviations for square roots and cube roots.[132]
· Seshadri constant:In algebraic geometry, a Seshadri constant is an invariant of an ample line bundle L at a point P on analgebraic variety.The name is in honour of the Indian mathematician C. S. Seshadri.
· Basu's theorem: The Basu's theorem, a result of Debabrata Basu (1955) states that any complete sufficient statistic is independent of any ancillary statistic.[133][134]
· Rolle's theorem: Bhāskara II is credited with knowledge of Rolle's theorem although its named after Michel Rolle who described with insufficient proof and was later proved by cauchy.[135]
· Kosambi-Karhunen-Loève theorem: Also known as the Karhunen–Loève theorem. The Kosambi-Karhunen-Loève theorem is a representation of a stochastic process as an infinite linear combination of orthogonal functions, analogous to a Fourier series representation of a function on a bounded interval. Stochastic processes given by infinite series of this form were first[136] considered by Damodar Dharmananda Kosambi.[137]
· Brahmagupta–Fibonacci identity, Brahmagupta formula, Brahmagupta matrix, and Brahmagupta theorem: Discovered by the Indian mathematician, Brahmagupta (598–668 CE).[138][139][140][141]
· Chakravala method: The Chakravala method, a cyclic algorithm to solve indeterminate quadratic equations is commonly attributed to Bhāskara II, (c. 1114 – 1185 CE)[142][143][144] although some attribute it to Jayadeva (c. 950~1000 CE).[145] Jayadeva pointed out that Brahmagupta’s approach to solving equations of this type would yield infinitely large number of solutions, to which he then described a general method of solving such equations.[146] Jayadeva's method was later refined by Bhāskara II in his Bijaganita treatise to be known as the Chakravala method, chakra (derived from cakraṃ चक्रं) meaning 'wheel' in Sanskrit, relevant to the cyclic nature of the algorithm.[146][147] With reference to the Chakravala method, E. O. Selenuis held that no European performances at the time of Bhāskara, nor much later, came up to its marvellous height of mathematical complexity.[142][146][148]
· Hindu number system: With decimal place-value and a symbol for zero, this system was the ancestor of the widely used Arabic numeral system. It was developed in the Indian subcontinent between the 1st and 6th centuries CE.[149][150]
· Decimal mark:The practice of using a decimal mark is derived from the decimal system used in Indian mathematics.[151]
· Fibonacci numbers: This sequence was first described by Virahanka (c. 700 AD), Gopāla (c. 1135), and Hemachandra (c. 1150),[152] as an outgrowth of the earlier writings on Sanskrit prosody by Pingala (c. 200 BC).
· Law of signs in multiplication: The earliest use of notation for negative numbers, as subtrahend, is credited by scholars to the Chinese, dating back to the 2nd century BC.[155] Like the Chinese, the Indians used negative numbers as subtrahend, but were the first to establish the "law of signs" with regards to the multiplication of positive and negative numbers, which did not appear in Chinese texts until 1299.[155] Indian mathematicians were aware of negative numbers by the 7th century,[155] and their role in mathematical problems of debt was understood.[156]Mostly consistent and correct rules for working with negative numbers were formulated,[157] and the diffusion of these rules led the Arab intermediaries to pass it on to Europe.,[156] for example (+)×(-)=(-),(-)×(-)=(+) etc.
· Zero, symbol: Indians were the first to use the zero as a symbol and in arithmetic operations, although Babylonians used zero to signify the 'absent'.[153] In those earlier times a blank space was used to denote zero, later when it created confusion a dot was used to denote zero (could be found in Bakhshali manuscript).[154] In 500 AD circa Aryabhata again gave a new symbol for zero (0).
D-8 Organization for Economic Cooperation
Courtesy of Wikipedia, Encyclopedia
(CWE) (Related Portion) (RP)
Members of D-8
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The D-8 Organization for Economic Cooperation, also known as Developing-8, is an organisation for development co-operation among the following countries: Bangladesh, Egypt, Nigeria, Indonesia, Iran, Malaysia, Pakistan, and Turkey. The objectives of D-8 Organization for Economic Cooperation are to improve member states' position in the global economy, diversify and create new opportunities in trade relations, enhance participation in decision-making at international level, and improve standards of living. D-8 is a global arrangement rather than a regional one, as the composition of its members reflects. Organization for Economic Cooperation (D-8) is a forum with no adverse impact on bilateral and multilateral commitments of the member countries, emanating from their membership to other international or regional organisations.
The idea of co-operation among major Muslim developing countries was mooted by Prof. Dr. Necmettin Erbakan, the then Prime Minister of Turkey, during a Seminar on "Cooperation in Development" which was held in Istanbul in October 1996. The group envisioned co-operation among countries stretching from South East Asia to Africa. Representatives from Bangladesh, Egypt, Indonesia, Iran, Malaysia, Nigeria and Pakistan attended the Seminar. This conference was the first step towards the establishment of D-8 and it was only after a series of preparatory meetings that D-8 was set up officially and began its activities with the Istanbul Declaration issued at the end of the summit of Heads of State and Government held in Istanbul on 15 June 1997.As stated by the D-8 Facts and Figures Publication: "The objectives of D-8 are to improve developing countries' positions in the world economy, diversify and create new opportunities in trade relations, enhance participation in decision-making at the international level, and provide better standards of living." The main areas of co-operation include finance, banking, rural development, science and technology, humanitarian development, agriculture, energy, environment, and health.
The idea of co-operation among major Muslim developing countries was mooted by Prof. Dr. Necmettin Erbakan, the then Prime Minister of Turkey, during a Seminar on "Cooperation in Development" which was held in Istanbul in October 1996. The group envisioned co-operation among countries stretching from South East Asia to Africa. Representatives from Bangladesh, Egypt, Indonesia, Iran, Malaysia, Nigeria and Pakistan attended the Seminar. This conference was the first step towards the establishment of D-8 and it was only after a series of preparatory meetings that D-8 was set up officially and began its activities with the Istanbul Declaration issued at the end of the summit of Heads of State and Government held in Istanbul on 15 June 1997.As stated by the D-8 Facts and Figures Publication: "The objectives of D-8 are to improve developing countries' positions in the world economy, diversify and create new opportunities in trade relations, enhance participation in decision-making at the international level, and provide better standards of living." The main areas of co-operation include finance, banking, rural development, science and technology, humanitarian development, agriculture, energy, environment, and health.
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D-8 DHAKA DECLARATION-1999
Resolution No. 1.We, the Heads of State and Government of Bangladesh, Egypt, Indonesia, Iran, Malaysia, Nigeria, Pakistan and Turkey met in Dhaka on 1-2 March 1999 for the Second D-8 Summit.
2. We reaffirmed our commitment to the principles, purposesand objectives of D-8 and pledged to continue to work toward achieving them through the implementation of projects and other programmes of cooperation that are of vital interest to our peoples.
3.We reaffirm that D-8 forum will be consistent with the relevant resolutions of the UN General Assembly on economic and technical cooperation among developing countries, and on strengthening of South-SouthCooperation.TheD-8 is a forum of functional cooperation, which would exploit the elements of comparative advantage, complementarity, economies of scale and commonality of interests so that real benefits can accrue to our peoples.
20.We expect the Industrial and Technological Data Bank Network coordinated by the Islamic Republic of Iran to be functional by July 1999. In this respect, we urge the member countries to expedite the implementation of their part, so that the project
could be operational in time and hope that all countries will utilise this service to enhance cooperation among themselves.
We should also encourage the member countries to freely use Internet and email service for the exchange of information between their respective networks or centers of excellence in each sector.
21.We also expect the national aquaculture information and monitoring centers to start functioning by July1999 and that the Directory of Scientists, Experts, Institutions and Registered Businesses in the private sector pertaining to aquaculture, being compiled by Pakistan, be completed as soon as possible.
Muslim World Science Initiative (formerly Muslim-Science.Com)
Select One Plaza, F-11 Markaz, Islamabad, Pakistan.
Task Force on Science at the Universities of the Muslim World London-Islamabad
Organizational Structure
Produced by: Organized By: Sponsored By Hosted By In Partnership with Science at the Universities of the Muslim World.
Chair Person: Tan Sri Prof. Zakri Abdul Hamid, then Science Advisor to Prime Minister of Malaysia.
Convenor: Prof. Nidhal Guessoum, Professor of Physics and Astronomy, American University of Sharjah, United Arab Emirates.
Co-Convenor and Host: Dr. Mohd Yusoff Sulaiman, President and CEO, Malaysian Industry Government Group for High Technology (MiGHT),
Members: Dr. Moneef Zou’bi, Executive Director, Islamic World Academy of Science, Jordan Prof. Adil Najam, Dean, Frederick S. Pardee School of Global Studies, Boston University and former Vice Chancellor, Lahore University of Management Sciences, Pakistan Prof. Ameenah Gurib-Fakim, Fellow of IAS, President of the Republic of Mauritius, and Professor at University of Mauritius Prof. Mustafa El-Tayeb, President, Future University, Khartoum, Sudan Prof. Abdur Razak Dzulkifli, President of International Association of Universities (IAU), and former Vice Chancellor Universiti Sains, Malaysia Prof. Nadia Alhasani, Dean of Student Life at The Petroleum Institute, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates Prof. Jamal Mimouni, Professor of Physics, University of Constantine-1, Algeria Dato Ir. Lee Yee Cheong, Chair ISTIC Governing Board and Chair InterAcademies Panel’s SEP Global Council, Malaysia Science at the Universities of the Muslim World 6 Task Force on Science at the Universities of the Muslim World External Experts: Prof. Michael Reiss, Professor of Science Education, UCL Institute of Education, University College, London Prof. Bruce Alberts, Professor of Biochemistry, University of California at San Fran cisco, President Emeritus at the National Academy of Sciences, and Recipient of 2014 US Presidential Medal of Science, United States of America Dr. Athar Osama, Hon. Senior Associate at UCL Institute of Education, University College, London, and Founder, Muslim World Science Initiative and Project Director of the Task Force on Science at Universities of the Muslim World, Pakistan Invited Contributor: Prof. S. Shoaib H. Zaidi, Dean, School of Sciences and Engineering at Habib University, Karachi, Pakistan.
Muslim World Science Initiative Report-2015
Muslim World Science Initiative Citation:
The Task Force Members wrote essays in the fall of 2014 and met in Kuala Lumpur on December 15-16, 2014 to discuss and debate issues. A Stakeholders Meeting and an OPEN FORUM was also organised tosolicit additional feedback. A number of issues formed an integral part of the task force’s agenda and conversations during these meetings and its subsequent deliberations. These include, among others:
• How is science taught in Muslim universities?
• Is there a reasonable balance between the offering of basic science programs and applied science programs? What policy principles govern such choices? Is the Islam ic culture a significant/driving factor in these choices?
• Are any science fields or topics avoided for cultural/religious reasons?
• Does any censorship affect science teaching and/or research at universities of the Muslim world? What is the status of academic freedom and how that is understood and applied? Does the Islamic culture play any role in that? •
How do international university rankings influence higher-education policies in the Muslim world?
• What is the state of research funding today in the region? Are the old(er) and the new research funding agencies playing a significant role? What improvements are needed?
• Is scientific research innovative or paradigmatically conservative at universities of the Muslim world? Does one see any inter-disciplinarity/multi-disciplinarity/trans- disciplinarity in scientific research at universities of the Muslim world?
• Are there enough collaborations (regional in particular, but international as well) in scientific projects at universities of the Muslim world? Science at the Universities of the Muslim World 7 Task Force on Science at the Universities of the Muslim World
• Is plagiarism in research widespread among scientists in the Muslim world? How can that be addressed? Can Islamic ethical principles be brought to bear to address this?
• Are universities of the Muslim world playing a significant outreach role? How many science blogs are there in the region? How many general-public articles do Muslim scientists write each year? Etc.
• Are universities of the Muslim world helping improve science education at the school level (through involvements with ministries of education, the writing of textbooks, etc.)?
• Are universities of the Muslim world addressing the general science literacy prob lem in their societies?
The Muslim World Science Initiative Task Forces
The Muslim World Science Initiative Task Forces are funded partly by John Templeton Foundation and the Science at Universities Task Force is brought together with the partnership and support of Malaysian Industry Government Group for High Technology (MiGHT), The Islamic World Academy of Sciences (IAS), and the Akademi Sains Malaysia (ASM). Science at the Universities of the Muslim World. The Task Force is putting out an open call for universities across the Muslim world to join a voluntary Network of Excellence for Science (NEXUS). NEXUS will help build capacity for University Administrators and Champions, monitor the progress of reforms at participating universities, and to issue a peer report card to recognise progress and inspire further improvements.
Universities must reinvent themselves to lead the scientific reforms Tan Sri Zakri Abdul Hamid Task Force Chair and Science Advisor to the Prime Minister of Malaysia Science at the Universities of the Muslim World. It is well-known that the 1.6 billion Muslims of the world contribute an extremely small share to its knowledge.
A Brief Description of Contribution of Muslim in Science & Technology
“The Arabs laid the foundation of those methods of experimental research, which in conjunction with mathematical analysis gave birth of modern Science”. (Robert Briffault)
“The contribution of Mohamadans (Muslims) as transmitter of knowledge from ancient to modern European civilization must not be underrated”. (Bertrand Russell: The History of Western Philosophy).
“We got civilization from the Muslims and they got from Quran” (Ex-President Dwight Eisenhower: emotional commented on the eve of inaugurate a Mosque of Islamic Centre, Washington DC, USA.)
*On June 28th, 1957, President Dwight Eisenhower addressed a crowd of American and Muslim diplomats gathered at the Islamic Center of Washington’s inauguration. Speaking from under marble columns and turquoise floral tiles he declared that the United States held a “strong bond of friendship with the Islamic nations” and called for the “peaceful progress of all men under one God.” Capitalizing on Eisenhower’s visit to the Islamic Center, the State Department began broadcasting and distributing printed copies of the president’s remarks throughout countries with significant Muslim populations. Egyptian newspapers published photographs of President Eisenhower and Mrs. Eisenhower removing their shoes as they entered the mosque. In Iran, state news media gave extensive coverage to the speech and leading clerics contacted the U.S. Embassy to express their gratitude. The State Department ordered photographs and posters of the Islamic Center of Washington to be printed in mass quantities in French, Arabic, and English at embassies in Dakar, Karachi, Dhaka, Algiers, Tunis, and Damascus.
“Science without religion is lame and religion without science is blind”. (Albert Einstein)
Verily, the Holy “Islam” is never blind/sightlessness or not merely customized religion but as a “Complete Code of Human Life” it is also “Science & Technology based religion” by the grace of Alla-h, almighty.
Since, one upon time the Muslim scholars used to treat the “Master of Science” (especially “Master of Mathematics”) of Europe in non-Muslim world and since the European Science & Technology were transferred in America during the British ruled, those were spread in world-wide that’s because it can easily say that we, the “Muslim Ummah” were “Former Scientist Nation” of the world (Subbayha-nalla-hi Wabihamdihi Subbayha-nalla-hil ‘Azeem), those we, the Muslim Ummah have already been lost now due to our neglect tendency.
However, we know from the book, named “1001 inventions” by Prof. Salim Al Hasani, Chairman, Foundation of Science, Technology and Civilization that maximum “world changeable” invents as well as discoveries had already been performed Muslims scientists by the grace of Alla-h, almighty. There are some important inventions are quoted below for kind perusal:
i). University: The first university of the world was initiated in ‘Gar-e-Hira’, ‘Jabal-e-Noor’ to ‘Darool Arkam’ (Al Mocca Muazzima>’Ashab-e-Suffa’ (Al Madina Munwara>Baitul Hikmah (Bagdad-Iraq)>Alhamra (Granada, Cordova, Muslim ruled Spain) >*Karuyin University, Fez, Morocco. Karuyin University: K. University is called the first formal Modern University of the world, established in 859 (Easa Saal) by Princes Fatima Al Firhi, Fez, Morocco. Since Nearly 1200 years the said University is being spread knowledge in the world till today.
ii). Hospital: The first formal ‘Modern Hospital’ of the world perhaps in 1000 Easa Saal was founded by world renewed surgery expert Al Jayrawari, inventor of Forceps and writer of 1500 paged book on ‘Medicine’, which is a model of European Surgical treatments and first modern ‘Surgical Operation’ initiator too.
iii. Mathematics: The Muslims were called the “Master of Math of Europe”. Abu Abdulla-h Muhammad Ibn Moosaa Alkhawarizom (*Algorithm) is the formally initiator of Modern
iii) Mathematics. In the 7th century he wrote “Al Jabar Wal Mukabala”, the name of ‘Aljebra’is basically comes from the said book. He is also inventor of English Numerals i.e., 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 & 9, which are called *Arabic Numerals (sources: Oxford/Quick Dictionary) “instead of Roman numerals I II III IV V IV, IIV, IIIV & IX and proper user of Zero (0),that invented in India sub-continental. However, mathematics is called “Fuel of Science”, that is radical change the world. Especially, the IT revaluation has already been done with using Arabic numerals i.e. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 & 9 and proper use of Zero in “Mobile/Cell as well as “Computer” technologies. Though, we admire all outputs of a computer with ‘Monitor’ but Monitor is only a cover but it is governed with “Centre Proccessing Unit” (CPU), that is governed with “Mathematical Unit”, which is governed with “Binary Code” and Binary code means “0 (zero) & 1 (one)”.
"Europe would be gone ahead in technologically before one century if the Arabic numerals invent hundred years ago". (Source: A special feature issued in an influential Magazine of Britain on the eve of celebration “London Islam festival-1980” on new hijra-1400.
A Short History for Contributing on Inventing Arabic Numerals by the Muslim Mathematician:
Contributions
“Al-Khwārizmī's contributions to mathematics, geography, astronomy, and cartography established the basis for innovation in algebra and trigonometry. His systematic approach to solving linear and quadratic equations led to algebra, a word derived from the title of his 830 book on the subject, "The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing".
Some of his work was based on Persian and Babylonian astronomy, Indian numbers, and Greek mathematics.
Al-Khwārizmī systematized and corrected Ptolemy's data for Africa and the Middle East. Another major book was Kitab surat al-ard ("The Image of the Earth"; translated as Geography), presenting the coordinates of places based on those in the Geography of Ptolemy but with improved values for the Mediterranean Sea, Asia, and Africa.[citation needed]
He assisted a project to determine the circumference of the Earth and in making a world map for al-Ma'mun, the caliph, overseeing 70 geographers.
When, in the 12th century, his works spread to Europe through Latin translations, it had a profound impact on the advance of mathematics in Europe.[citation needed]
Binary numerals were central to Leibniz's theology. Gottfried Leibnizbelieved that binary numbers were symbolic of the Christian idea of creatio ex nihilo or creation out of nothing”
(Source: (i) https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki)input.
(ii) https:ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithm#cite_note-5.
Muhamma Musa Al Khawrithm, a world reputed Muslim Mathematician; Bagdad, Iraq is called him in Europe Algorithm. The word of “Logarithm” comes from Algorithm, an important portion of a computer, made by John Napier which is an important Circuit of Microchip and Device’s name of computer that is used for critical accounting.
“Circuit of Microchip is helped to change the world picture”, addressed by Dr. Mahathir Muhammad, Ex Prime Minister of Malaysia in an International Islamic Forum in Kualalampore: (Source: The Magazine, published by Rabat-e-Al Alam Al Islam, KSA.)
*Arabic numeral: Commonly we know that the numerals respectively ١ ٢ ٣ ۴ ۵ ۶ ۷ ۸۹are “Arabic Numerals”
Experiment: Arabic Numeral: 1=١, 2=٢, 3=٣, 6=۶, 9=۹. We do think that the numerals of1, 2, 3, 6 & 9 are merely alteration of motion of Arabic numerals ١, ٢, ٣, ۶, ۹ respectively and the personal basic invention of Musa Al Khawarithm are only 4, 5, 6, 7 & 8.
*Roman Numeral:
For example,’ I’ is the Ninth Number Alphabet of English Grammar, which is represented ‘One’ (1) in Roman Numeral. For example: I means =1, II means =2, III=3, IV=4, V=5, VI=6, VII=7, VIII=8, IX=9, X means =10(Ten) , “L” means =50(Fifty), “C” means=100 (Hundred), “D”=500 (Five Hundred) , “M”=1000 (One thousand) .
However, we do think that there is basic/root figure in the Arithmetic side is only “1” (One) and its assistant is “0” (Zero) for extending large figure. For the following example is:
1+1=2+1=3+1=4+1=5+1=6+1=7+1=8+1=9 i.e.
1+1=2
1+1+1=3
1+1+1+1=4
1+1+1+1+1=5
1+1+1+1+1+1=6
1+1+1+1+1+1+1=7
1+1+1+1+1+1+1+1=8
1+1+1+1+1+1+1+1+1=9 i.e. 2(Two) to 9(Nine) all mathematical symbols are the Collective of 1(one) only.
As a matter of fact of above “Arabic Numerals” naming is due to religious racing name of inventor in lieu of “English Numeral” was an Arabian, named Musa Al Khwarizmi, western name a great Muslim mathematician of the world.
Several Numerals of the World:
There are following several kinds of world Numerals:
1. Arabic Numerals: There are two kinds of Arabic Numerals:
ii. International Arabic Numerals: (We know as English Numerals): 1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8-9 with 0 (zero).
(sources: Oxford, Quick etc., Dictionaries)
०.१.२.३.४.५.६.७.८.९.
(search:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_numerals#cite_note-ifrah-13)
(ii) Roman Numerals: I-II-III-IV-V-VI-VII-VIII-IX-X
Muhammad Ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizm: Founder of Computer Science.
Muhammad Ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizm: The Great Successful user of Binary encoding system.Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī (Persian: محمد بن موسی خوارزمی, Arabic: محمد بن موسى الخوارزمی; c. 780 –. 850), formerly Latinized as Algoritmi,[note 2] was a Persian[3][4] (modern Khiva, Uzbekistan) mathematician, astronomer, and geographer during the Abbasid Caliphate, a scholar in the House of Wisdom in Baghdad. (Source: Wikipedia/web)
“In mathematics and computer science, an algorithm (/ˈælɡərɪðəm/ ( listen) AL-gə-ri-dhəm) is a self-contained sequence of actions to be performed. Algorithms can perform calculation, data processing
The Great Role in Mathematics, the “Fuel of Science”of Muhammad Musa Al-Khwarizmi:
“Algorithm based Microchip by Muhammad Musa Al Khwarizmi, helps to change the world picture”.
(Addressed by Dr. Mahathir Muhammad, Ex-Prime Minister of Malaysia in an International Islamic Forum in Kuala lampore : (Source: The Magazine, published by Rabat-e-Al Alam Al Islam, K.S.A.)
“Al-Khwarizmi’s second major work was on the subject of arithmetic, which survived in a Latin translation but was lost in the original Arabic. The translation was most likely done in the 12th century by Adelard of Bath, who had also translated the astronomical tables in 1126”. (Ditto)
“The Latin manuscripts are untitled, but are commonly referred to by the first two words with which they start: Dixit algorizmi ("So said al-Khwārizmī"), or Algoritmi de numero Indorum ("al-Khwārizmī on the Hindu Art of
Reckoning"), a name given to the work by Baldassarre Boncompagni in 1857. The original Arabic title was possibly Kitāb al-Jam‘wat-Tafrīq bi-Ḥisāb al-Hind[22] ("The Book of Addition and Subtraction According to the Hindu Calculation").”[23] (Wikipedia)
“On the Calculation with Hindu Numerals written about 825 was principally responsible for spreading the Hindu–Arabic numeral system throughout the Middle East and Europe. It was translated into Latin as Algoritmi de numero Indorum. Al-Khwārizmī, rendered as (Latin) Algoritmi, led to the term "algorithm".
The system of “Binary Code”, invented by Musa Al Khwarizmi with Arabic “1” (One) and activeness the Hindu Numeral “0” (zero), called the ‘Assistant Figure’ of mathematics had been inactivated in era of Roman numeral i.e., I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX and X.
How to invent the Arabic Numerals by Musa Al Khwarizmi?
It is noticeable that the following several figures of “Called Arabic numerals” (1 to 9) are just duplicated of “Original Arabic Numerals” (١ to ۹):
Experiment: Arabic numerals: 1=١, 2=٢, 3=٣, 6=۶, And 9=۹. We do think that the numerals of1, 2, 3, 6 & 9 are merely alteration of
motion of Arabic numerals ١, ٢, ٣, ۶, ۹ respectively and the personal basic invention of Musa Al Khwarizmi are 4, 5, 7 & 8.
*Roman numeral: The analog numeral of the mathematic I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX & X are called ‘Roman numeral’ in lieu of digital (from 0 & 1 to 9 numeral is called digital) Arabic numeral.
‘I’ is the Ninth Number Alphabet of English Grammar, which is represented ‘One’ (1) in Roman numeral. For example: I=1, II=2, III=3, IV=4, V=5, VI=6, VII=7, VIII=8, IX=9, X=10, L=50, C=100, D=500, M=1000.
We know that the previous “International Numeral” was Roman numeral i.e.I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX & X. It may be noted that an especial feature of an influential Magazine, issued in U.K, on the occasion of “London Islam Festival-1980”, observing of New Hijra century-1400, remarked that the European revive would be go-ahead before 100 years if the Arabic numeral 1, 2. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, & 9 invented 100 years ago.
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